<p>St. Lukes Church  is a historic church in rural Beaufort County, South Carolina located about four miles north of Pritchardville.</p><br>
<p>The original Episcopal congregation worshipped about a half mile away in a 1786 building built on land donated by John Bull. In 1824 the present building was constructed on land contributed by John Guerard, on part of what had been Bull Hill Plantation. In 1857, the Church of the Cross was built in nearby Bluffton, and services were discontinued around that time. In 1875, the church was sold to the Methodists, who use it to the present day.</p><br>
<p>The church is noted for its transitional architecture bridging the Georgian style of earlier South Carolina Episcopal churches and the rising Greek Revival style. It is one of the oldest churches in the state built for Episcopal worship, and one of the few with intact slave galleries.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987.</p><br>
<p>White Church, also known as The Brick Church, and formally as St. Thomas Episcopal Church and St. Thomas and St. Dennis Parish Church, is an historic church north of Cainhoy in Berkeley County, South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>It was built in 1819 as the parish church for St. Thomas and St. Dennis Parish and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, together with its vestry building and cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Reconstruction era</h2><br>
<p>In October 1876 the church was the site of a planned Republican meeting, attended mostly by freedmen, which was interrupted by a large party of more than 150 white men, Democrats from Charleston who arrived by steamboat and demanded equal time. As this followed the massacre by whites of seven freedmen at Hamburg in Aiken County from July 4 to July 8, tensions were high. While efforts were made to have both sides lay down their arms, the tensions broke out into shooting, which resulted in the deaths of one African-American man and three to six whites.</p><br>
<p>It was one of several events during the campaign season in South Carolina in which violence was used to disrupt Republican meetings and suppress black voting, particularly in Edgefield County, which had a Republican/black majority. Typical of the times was a plan for Edgefield County by veteran General Martin W. Gary, who listed numerous activities to take place over several months by rifle clubs to disrupt Republican voting.</p><br>
<p>St. David&#39;s Episcopal Church and Cemetery is a historic church and cemetery on Church Street in Cheraw, South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>It was built in 1770 and added to the National Register in 1971.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Burials</h2><br>
<p>Alexander Gregg (1819–1893), a native of this area and the first bishop of Texas and author of History of the Old Cheraws.</p><br>
<p>James McCutchen McJames (1873-1901), early professional baseball player.</p><br>
<p>William P. Pollock (1870–1922), member of the S. C. General Assembly and U. S. Senator from South Carolina</p><br>
<p>Capt. Moses Rogers (d. Nov. 11, 1821) commanded the SS Savannah on its 1819 voyage when it became the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<p>William Francis Stevenson (1861-1942) USA Representative from South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>All Saints Church Pawleys Island is a historic church complex and national historic district located on Pawleys Island, Georgetown County, South Carolina. The district encompasses three contributing buildings and one contributing site—the sanctuary, cemetery, rectory, and chapel. In 2004, it left the Episcopal Church to join the Diocese of the Carolinas, now part of the Anglican Church in North America, a denomination within the Anglican realignment movement.</p><br>
<p>The sanctuary, built 1916-1917, the fourth to serve this congregation, is significant as an excellent example of the Classical Revival style, adapting the design of the church’s 19th century sanctuary which burned in 1915. It is a one-story rectangular brick building sheathed in scored stucco. It has an engaged pedimented portico supported by four fluted Greek Doric order columns. A Doric frieze, composed of triglyphs, metopes, and guttae, runs under the cornice around the building on three sides. The church has a large center aisle sanctuary with a coved tray ceiling. The church cemetery, established in the 1820s, is significant for the persons buried there, many of who were the leading public figures of antebellum Georgetown County. It is also significant a collection of outstanding gravestone art from about 1820 to 1900. The church rectory, built in 1822, is an intact example of a Carolina I-house. Its first congregation was formed in 1739, and the church has been located at this site since then. Associated with the church is the separately listed Cedar Grove Plantation Chapel.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1991.</p><br>
<p>Prince Frederick&#39;s Chapel Ruins is a historic site in Plantersville, South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>The first church on this site, known as Prince Frederick&#39;s Chapel, Pee Dee, was built in 1848 on a site donated by the Rev. Hugh Fraser in 1834. Most of the parishioners were rice planters along the Pee Dee River. These ruins are of the second church here, approved by a committee of Robert Francis Withers Allston, Davison McDowell, and Francis Weston and begun in 1859 but interrupted by the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The Gothic Revival church designed by Louis J. Barbot was completed in 1876 with a gift of $1,700 by John Earle Allston. With the decline of rice planting the church gradually fell into disrepair and was eventually deemed unsafe. It was demolished in 1966, leaving only the front wall and tower.</p><br>
<p>The ruins were listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<p>Mount Spec Road and Little Crystal Creek Bridge is a heritage-listed road from Mutarnee to Paluma with a bridge over Little Crystal Creek at Crystal Creek, City of Townsville, Queensland, Australia. The bridge is 61 km north of Townsville and provides access to the Paluma Range National Park. The road and the bridge were constructed between 1930 and 1936 under the Unemployment Relief Scheme during the Great Depression. They were added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 30 October 2008.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mount Spec Road and Little Crystal Creek Bridge, Crystal Creek, are situated in north Queensland, 61km north of Townsville. Mount Spec Road stretches some 18km from its junction with the old Bruce Highway to the western outskirts of Paluma. It provides access from the coastal plain, just 5km wide in this area, to the Paluma Range, which rises some 1000m above the Big Crystal Creek floodplain. The concrete arch bridge over Little Crystal Creek is a prominent feature of the landscape in this area, and is located about halfway along the Mount Spec Road. The bridge is a very common subject for photography by locals and visitors, and Little Crystal Creek is one of the most popular natural destinations for residents of the city of Townsville.</p><br>
<p>Lobbying to build the Mount Spec Road took place over some 30 or so years, against a background of philosophical ideas of "progress" and "settlement" and the need for access to the areas west of Paluma for tin miners, timber cutters and farmers ("farmers access roads"), to the Paluma/Crystal Creek area itself for tourists and as a water supply for Townsville. This lobbying and the prolonged debate over the eventual location and construction of the road were also linked with the need to preserve features of the natural landscape. It took place amongst considerable controversy.</p><br>
<p>The earliest European access to what is now Paluma probably followed Aboriginal pathways, and there were six tracks in the Herbert district in the 1880s and 1890s that provided direct access to Mount Spec. However, only a few of these tracks were suitable for horses; most were foot tracks, and the easiest access to the forest in this area of broken topography was from the west.</p><br>
<p>In 1875 tin was discovered west of Paluma. It was soon realised that a good access road was required not only for the tin miners but also for visitors to the ranges, as the scenic beauty and temperate climate of the Paluma Range had been noted since the early 1900s. The Paluma Range area had been promoted for tourism and as a health resort from as early as 1902, when a correspondent from the North Queensland Herald visited the Mount Spec tin mines. The North Queensland Register of 28 July 1913 suggested that a township be gazetted at Cloudy Clearing, the original name for the site of Paluma, that a sanitarium be established in the ranges, and that "the scrub" be protected.</p><br>
<p>Successful Townsville businessman, REA McKimmin, wrote in 1913 of the scenic attractions of Mount Spec: "...I have seen most of the Southern Beauty Spots...and have no hesitation in stating that Mount Spec would surpass them all in every way if properly opened up...the wonderful change of climate compared to Townsville during the summer months is difficult to describe...".</p><br>
<p>Similarly, Phillip Foxlee, a Mount Spec tin miner, wrote to Queensland Premier Ted Theodore in 1925: "All the water comes pouring through this Gorge in one channel at the mouth...this Gorge two miles wide for almost its entire length...and crammed full of waterfalls on every side...I think eventually we will have people from all parts of the world through that Gorge and circle round back to Mount Spec...it is likely to be a National Park."</p><br>
<p>Public interest in mountain retreats had endured from colonial times, when the summer&#39;s heat was to be avoided and recuperation at higher, cooler altitudes was prescribed for diseases such as tuberculosis, a trend which continued during World War II, when patients of the disease were still privately recuperating in Paluma. Mount Spec had become a popular weekend destination for visitors from Townsville and Ingham after World War I, and a series of "ranches" and guesthouses had appeared long before the road was constructed. Most of these visitors walked in on foot, just as the tin miners had done.</p><br>
<p>By 1920, the need to provide all-weather roads was a priority for Queenslanders, a response to the increased number of motor vehicles on the roads, and to the need to provide suitable infrastructure for an expanding economy. Queensland roads were in a deplorable condition, the result of haphazard planning by the then responsible but under-funded local government authorities. In the development of a road network, Queensland lagged far behind the other states. In response, the Queensland Government established the Main Roads Board in 1920 to oversee the construction of connecting roads and bridges and to provide funding to the local authorities involved. In 1925, the Main Roads Board became the Main Roads Commission under John Robert Kemp as Commissioner and continued the overseeing of road and bridge construction throughout Queensland. The Main Roads Board quickly realised that road and bridge specifications and other standards were urgently required to improve the quality of construction and establish a uniformity of practice. Road standards were therefore established, introducing three classifications of roads in 1925 and a single standard bridge design in 1922-1923. Two years later alternative designs were added to cater for different loadings, labelled First Class (later A Class) and Second Class (B Class). These standards did not change significantly over the next 80 years.</p><br>
<p>The Main Roads Act 1920 provided that responsibility for roads and bridges be shared between local and state authorities, ensuring that road planning and building was coordinated beyond the scope of individual local authorities. Under the Act, roads could be gazetted as Main Roads outside towns if they were trunk roads joining towns which were not yet connected by railway; feeder roads linking farming areas to the existing rail network; and developmental roads, which were to open to closer settlement new areas of Crown Land. Under amendments to the Main Roads Act 1920, several new categories of declared roads were added, including in 1929-1930 Tourist Roads, which were intended to open up areas to tourist traffic. Seven Tourist Roads had been declared by June 1930, although limited work had been carried out on them, and these included the Mount Spec Road, which therefore is one of the earliest declared Tourist Roads in Queensland. The inclusion of Mount Spec Road as a Tourist Road was largely due to influential Townsville businessmen, who with varied commercial, political and personal motives had brought together the various stakeholders to lobby for the construction of the road.</p><br>
<p>The newly formed Main Roads Board and subsequent Commission were anxious to make a mark, a factor exploited by the various lobby groups around Townsville. These included organisations such as the Royal Automobile Club of Queensland (RACQ), which arose from the growth in motor vehicle traffic and had a particularly active membership in Townsville in the late 1920s, and the Townsville and District Development Association, which had been campaigning since the early years of the twentieth century for the Queensland Government to open Mount Spec to settlement.</p><br>
<p>Townsville City Council was a powerful advocate for the construction of the Mount Spec Road. Mayor William Herbert Green saw the potential of Mount Spec as a water catchment for Townsville, because in the 1920s Townsvilles water supply could not meet demand, and access to a guaranteed supply was required for the growing population. Although the motivation to improve access to the ranges was both the quantity and quality of the water at Mount Spec, financial constraints and the location of the area outside Townsville City Councils jurisdiction within the Shires of Thuringowa and Hinchinbrook resulted in an unwillingness to commit Townsville Citys own funds to the construction of the road. Many of Townsville City and neighbouring Councils concerns over financial responsibility for the proposed road were relieved by its gazettal as a Tourist Road in October 1929. Nevertheless, Mayor Greens vision for Mount Spec as a water supply for Townsville was not met until the end of 1954, with the official opening of the first pipeline from Big Crystal Creek to Townsville and later with the construction of the Paluma Dam in the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the Mount Spec Road finally came down to the State Governments need to deliver unemployment relief during the Great Depression and to provide quick scenic access to the proposed township at Cloudy Clearing in the ranges, for which Townsville branches of the Country and Progressive National Party had lobbied the Minister for Lands in 1931. There was otherwise mixed support for the road and its perceived benefits compared to its potential costs, particularly following the release of the Report of the Royal Commission on the Development of North Queensland in 1931. The purported economic benefits of the road were not clearly demonstrated. For example, potential timber reserves could be accessed by the road, a point made forcefully by state foresters to the Royal Commission, but logging areas within the Mount Spec State Forest had only been gazetted in the 1920s, the full extent of the timber reserves was unknown and the timber industry was only just beginning. Furthermore, tin mining was suffering a downturn, and the possibilities for farming on the tableland around Mount Spec that had been promoted by the Townsville and District Development Association were not readily apparent, with the only evidence that it was viable being fruits and vegetables grown in miners clearings.</p><br>
<p>Finally, after an expedition into the ranges in 1924 by Townsville City Council and the RACQ, a motion was passed to request the Main Roads Board to undertake a survey of a road to Mount Spec, which was eventually carried out between 1929 and 1931. In November 1930, construction of the Mount Spec Road began with the clearing of about five miles of track from the railway line to the base of the Paluma Range. The new Main Roads Commission was responsible for surveying, designing and supervising the construction of the road. Apart from a few contractors, the only permanent staff were Commission employees. Labour was mostly unskilled and drawn from the region&#39;s unemployed men under Unemployment Relief Scheme funds that the Government insisted the Main Roads Commission deploy as a way of easing unemployment. The construction of the Mount Spec Road was the largest Unemployment Relief project in the region.</p><br>
<p>The project was labour-intensive took five years to complete. Working conditions were hard and isolated. Initially, all workers were located in one large camp near the base of the range, No. 1 Camp, where a pipeworks was erected on Ollera Creek. There were four major campsites throughout the duration of the project, but it is difficult to determine the total number of camps accurately because, as work progressed, smaller satellite campsites were established near where significant work, such as the construction of concrete arch culverts, was being undertaken. Mango and lemon trees and passionfruit vines previously marked the locations of these campsites, but these have mostly been removed, so that it is now difficult to determine where the campsites were situated on the ground. The campsite at The Saddle, some 10.1 km from the start of the road, was quite large, housing over 100 workers and being maintained over a period of three years. The camp was on level ground below the road on the right-hand side, and included the Main Roads Commission site office, a tool shed and a telephone. Three large ship&#39;s water tanks now mark the location of this campsite. These tanks stored water for the camp, being fed by a nearby creek. Water was transported to fill the tanks in dry weather.</p><br>
<p>Sand was dug from the creek bed near No. 1 Camp for the hundreds of concrete pipes forming most of the culverts under the road. The eucalypt forest and then the rainforest, marked on Main Roads working drawings as "vine scrub" or "jungle", had to be manually cleared. Initially, the only mechanical aids were a few trucks, two tractors and two air compressors, with cuttings being blasted through the granite with gelignite and most work being done with picks and shovels. After the trees were cleared, horse-drawn ploughs broke up the softer earth, while horse-drawn scoops, wheelbarrows or mining trolleys on portable lengths of track removed the overburden. "Tumbling tommies", small scoops that were towed behind the crawler tractors, were used later on.</p><br>
<p>The significance of the project to Queensland&#39;s unemployment relief efforts was so great that the Queensland Governor, Sir Leslie Wilson, even visited for lunch, viewing progress on the road at No. 3 Camp, after travelling by train to Moongobulla and then up to the site.</p><br>
<p>In keeping with one of the main purposes of the road and as construction continued, a series of guesthouses and camping grounds were established along its length due to the beauty of the scenery, with Barrett&#39;s Guesthouse providing for the single male workers and visitors to the construction site.</p><br>
<p>As visitation to the Paluma Range increased, lobbying for the gazettal of a township continued, and with the head of works on the road still two miles from Paluma, the first auctions of lots were held in December 1934. The establishment of a township at Cloudy Clearing, now known as Paluma, had begun.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Spec Tourist Road was opened by Cecil Jesson, MLA for Kennedy, on 18 July 1937, sponsored by the Townsville and District Development Association and some twelve months after the full length of the road had become trafficable by car.</p><br>
<p>The Main Roads Commission also assumed responsibility for the provision of a range of tourist facilities, and in conjunction with the construction of the Mount Spec Road, built picnic areas and shelter sheds at Little Crystal Creek, The Saddle and at the top of the range; surveyed and built a network of walking tracks, some of which formed the basis for the present National Parks track system; and constructed scenic lookouts at The Saddle, The Loop (now McClellands Lookout in honour of the Officer-in-Charge of construction), Star Valley and Widts Lookout. Another innovation was the establishment of a "motor camp" at Paluma in 1937, possibly the first motel in Australia, which continued to be managed by Main Roads for another twenty years.</p><br>
<p>It is clear from the available evidence that the aesthetic appeal of the road was considered by the Main Roads Commission throughout its construction. The aesthetically pleasing design of the concrete arch bridge across Little Crystal Creek constitutes the best example of this. The final design of the bridge also illustrates the long-term thinking of the local Main Roads overseer and engineers, who had successfully lobbied Main Roads&#39; head office in Brisbane for a radical change from the more usual second-class timber bridge to a first-class concrete bridge. On 8 June 1931, the District Engineer Townsville had written to the Secretary Main Roads Commission in Brisbane that "from the aesthetic point of view a masonry arch should be considered, as it would harmonise with a rather picturesque spot." This variation was approved in January 1932 and contributed to an escalation in the final construction costs of the project. Four stonemasons were employed during the construction of the Little Crystal Creek Bridge. Wages for the stonemasons and "too much work dressing stone", as noted by the District Engineer Townsville in June 1933, contributed to the excessive cost of the bridge. However, overall approval of the final result using unskilled labour as well as that of the stonemasons is apparent in the words of the Commissioner of Main Roads, who wrote in 1933 that the bridge was "an illustration of the high quality of work which can be achieved by such labour skilfully directed." The Little Crystal Creek Bridge is reportedly the only concrete arch road bridge in Queensland that remains in service.</p><br>
<p>Other examples that illustrate the way in which the final aesthetic appeal of the road was taken into account during construction include the several smaller concrete arch culverts that still exist along the full length of the road, which are similar in construction to the bridge over Little Crystal Creek, and the sections of stone battering and stone-paved gutters that have survived despite subsequent road improvements and maintenance and natural weathering.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Spec Road, Crystal Creek stretches approximately 18km from its junction with the old Bruce Highway to the western outskirts of Paluma, north Queensland. It includes the bridge over Little Crystal Creek, which is located about halfway along the Mount Spec Road.</p><br>
<p>Although originally a gravel road, the Mount Spec Road now has a bitumen surface and rises some 885m up the Range. The road is two way. It has never been widened, and the original route and character of the road has been retained.</p><br>
<p>The Little Crystal Creek Bridge comprises a single span arch, constructed of concrete but faced with stone. It spans the Little Crystal Creek Gorge in Paluma Range National Park. The bridge has an aesthetically pleasing design, and is particularly photogenic, being in a very scenic location.</p><br>
<p>The original Little Crystal Creek Main Roads campsite that was used for the construction of the Bridge is now a car park developed by Queensland Parks and Wildlife in the 1990s. The car park at Little Crystal Creek is located on the left-hand side of the road for visitors to Little Crystal Creek Bridge and swimming hole, and part of this lies outside the heritage boundary, which is restricted to the road reserve. There is a large interpretive historical sign, including photographs, which was erected by Thuringowa City Council and Queensland Parks and Wildlife. Although a large part of the original dry stone wall in this location was removed during development of the car park, some sections still remain within the road reserve. Many of the stones of the wall were taken away and reused to build the walking track to Witts Lookout at Paluma, although a pile of unused stones remain adjacent to the Witts Lookout track.</p><br>
<p>There are several smaller concrete arch culverts, similar in construction to the bridge over Little Crystal Creek, and sections of dry stone walling (battering) and stone-paved gutters at various points along the full length of the road. The sections of stone guttering range from 10m to 140m in length and were constructed only where needed to divert run-off into pipe culverts. Most of the stone guttering occurs on the left-hand side of the road on the drive up the range, although one section of guttering survives on the outside of the slope, some 2.8 km from the beginning of the road. Over 200 reinforced concrete culverts, or "pipe culverts", occur along the road.</p><br>
<p>Although it is now difficult to determine where many of the campsites used by the road workers during construction of the Mount Spec Road were situated, the location of The Saddle Campsite, some 10.3km from the beginning of the road, is marked by three ship&#39;s water tanks located within the road reserve. The tanks are about 1.2m square and about 1m deep (approximately 1000L capacity each).</p><br>
<p>There is a Main Roads Commission Benchmark tree located 265m ASL, some 4.8km from the start of the road. The tree is above the sealed road but within the road reserve, and although now dead, the blazed benchmark is very clear, and includes a broad arrow with "MR 51/2" marked on it.</p><br>
<p>At Paluma itself, some of the original white-painted round timber Main Roads guideposts still exist, for example, on the turnouts to Lennox Crescent. Although there were similar timber guideposts along the full length of the Mount Spec Road until a few years ago, most of these have been removed and replaced with modern metal/plastic guideposts. One section of timber guard rail, however, remains at a location about 16km from the beginning of the road, providing evidence of the original post and rail construction.</p><br>
<p>There are spectacular views of Halifax Bay and the coastal plain as the road twists and turns up the Paluma Range.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage listing</h2><br>
<p>Mount Spec Road and Little Crystal Creek Bridge was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 30 October 2008 having satisfied the following criteria.</p><br>
<p>The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland&apos;s history.</p><br>
<p>Mount Spec Road, which stretches approximately 18km from its junction with the old Bruce Highway to the western outskirts of Paluma and includes the concrete arch bridge over Little Crystal Creek, is important in demonstrating the evolution and pattern of North Queensland&#39;s history. The road was constructed between 1930 and 1936 and before the northern highway from Townsville to Ingham, at a time when Main Roads were still a new concept. It was constructed at the height of the Great Depression, using mostly unskilled labour and with the application of Unemployment Relief Scheme funds. Construction of Mount Spec Road was the largest Unemployment Relief project in the region. It was a difficult and ambitious project that eventually took six years to complete and is significant as a long-term regional project employing hundreds of men.</p><br>
<p>The place is also important in demonstrating transport and communication patterns in North Queensland, and in particular the opening up of the Paluma Range to tourists, tin miners, timber cutters and farmers. The place is one of Queensland&#39;s earliest declared Tourist Roads, a new category of Main Road established under 1929-1930 amendments to the Main Roads Act 1920, and constructed under the auspices of the newly formed Main Roads Commission, whose responsibility was to guide the planning and construction of roads in Queensland.</p><br>
<p>The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland&apos;s cultural heritage.</p><br>
<p>Mount Spec Road remains substantially intact throughout the 18km of its length and demonstrates an extensive and now uncommon use of concrete arch culverts, dry stone walling and stone-paved gutters.</p><br>
<p>The Little Crystal Creek Bridge on Mount Spec Road is the only identified Main Roads concrete arch bridge dressed with stone remaining in service in Queensland.</p><br>
<p>The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.</p><br>
<p>Mount Spec Road is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of an early declared Tourist Road designed to open scenic locations to tourist traffic and constructed in hilly terrain by a large depression-era labour force using limited mechanical assistance. These characteristics include the extensive use of concrete arch culverts, dry stone walling and stone-paved gutters; the inclusion of a substantial concrete arch bridge over Little Crystal Creek rather than a less substantial timber structure; and the facing of the bridge and the arch culverts with stone.</p><br>
<p>The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.</p><br>
<p>The concrete arch bridge over Little Crystal Creek is an aesthetically pleasing design in a picturesque location along the Mount Spec Road. The bridge spans the Little Crystal Creek gorge in the Paluma Range National Park, and has become representative of this scenic part of the landscape, being a very prominent feature commonly photographed by locals and visitors. The aesthetics of the stone-faced concrete bridge are repeated in the several smaller concrete arch culverts that are located along the full length of the road. The road affords spectacular views of Halifax Bay and the coastal plain.</p><br>
<p>The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora was one of the most powerful eruptions in recorded history, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index  of 7. It is the most recent known VEI-7 event, and the only unambiguously confirmed VEI-7 eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about AD 180. </p><br>
<p>The eruption of the volcano, on the island of Sumbawa in the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia), reached a climax on 10 April 1815 and was followed by between six months and three years of increased steaming and small phreatic eruptions. The ash from the eruption column dispersed around the world and lowered global temperatures, leading to worldwide harvest failures in an event sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816. The eruption resulted in a brief period of significant climate change that led to various cases of extreme weather. Several climate forcings coincided and interacted in a systematic manner that has not been observed since, despite other large eruptions that have occurred since the early Stone Age. Although the link between the post-eruption climate changes and the Tambora event has been established by various scientists, the understanding of the processes involved is incomplete.</p><br>
<h2>Chronology of the eruption</h2><br>
<p>Mount Tambora experienced several centuries of dormancy before 1815, caused by the gradual cooling of hydrous magma in a closed magma chamber. Inside the chamber at depths between 1.5 and, the exsolution of a high-pressure fluid magma formed during cooling and crystallisation of the magma. Overpressure of the chamber of about 4,000 - was generated, and the temperature ranged from 700 -.</p><br>
<p>On 5 April 1815, a very large eruption occurred, followed by thunderous detonation sounds, heard in Makassar on Sulawesi 380 km away, Batavia (now Jakarta) on Java 1,260 km away, and Ternate on the Molucca Islands 1,400 km away. On the morning of 6 April, volcanic ash began to fall in East Java with faint detonation sounds lasting until 10 April. What was first thought to be the sound of firing guns was heard on 10 April on Sumatra, more than 2,600 km away.</p><br>
<p>At about 7 pm on 10 April, the eruptions intensified. Three columns of flame rose up and merged. The whole mountain was turned into a flowing mass of "liquid fire". Pumice stones of up to 20 cm in diameter started to rain down around 8 pm, followed by ash at around 9–10 pm. Pyroclastic flows cascaded down the mountain to the sea on all sides of the peninsula, wiping out the village of Tambora. Loud explosions were heard until the next evening, 11 April. The ash veil spread as far as West Java and South Sulawesi. A nitrous odour was noticeable in Batavia, and heavy tephra-tinged rain fell, finally receding between 11 and 17 April.</p><br>
<p>The explosion is estimated to have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 7. An estimated 41 km3 of pyroclastic trachyandesite were ejected, weighing about 10 billion tonnes. This has left a caldera measuring 6 - across and 600 - deep. Before the explosion, Mount Tambora was about 4,300 m high,</p><br>
<p>The 1815 Tambora eruption is the largest observed eruption in recorded history (see Table I, for comparison). The explosion was heard 2,600 km away, and ash fell at least 1,300 km away.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>All vegetation on the island was destroyed. Uprooted trees, mixed with pumice ash, washed into the sea and formed rafts up to 5 km across. One pumice raft was found in the Indian Ocean near Calcutta on 1 and 3 October 1815. Clouds of thick ash still covered the summit on 23 April. Explosions ceased on 15 July, although smoke emissions were observed as late as 23 August. Flames and rumbling aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the event.</p><br>
<p>A moderate-sized tsunami struck the shores of various islands in the Indonesian archipelago on 10 April, with a height of up to 4 m in Sanggar around 10 pm. A tsunami of 1 - in height was reported in Besuki, East Java, before midnight, and one of 2 m in height in the Molucca Islands. The total death toll has been estimated to be around 4,600.</p><br>
<p>. Hvo.wr.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 April 2012.</p><br>
<p>The eruption column reached the stratosphere, an altitude of more than 43 km. The coarser ash particles fell one to two weeks after the eruptions, but the finer ash particles stayed in the atmosphere from a few months to a few years at altitudes of 10 -. Longitudinal winds spread these fine particles around the globe, creating optical phenomena. Prolonged and brilliantly coloured sunsets and twilights were seen frequently in London between 28 June and 2 July 1815 and 3 September and 7 October 1815. The glow of the twilight sky typically appeared orange or red near the horizon and purple or pink above.</p><br>
<p>The estimated number of deaths varies depending on the source. Zollinger (1855) puts the number of direct deaths at 10,000, probably caused by pyroclastic flows. On Sumbawa island, 38,000 deaths were due to starvation, and another 10,000 deaths occurred due to disease and hunger on Lombok island. Petroeschevsky (1949) estimated that about 48,000 people were killed on Sumbawa and 44,000 on Lombok. Several authors use Petroeschevskys figures, such as Stothers (1984), who cites 88,000 deaths in total. However, Tanguy et al. (1998) claimed Petroeschevskys figures to be unfounded and based on untraceable references. Tanguy revised the number based on Zollinger, who spent several months on Sumbawa after the eruption, and Sir Thomas Raffles&#39;s notes. Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on Bali and East Java because of famine and disease. Their estimate was 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic effects and 49,000 by post-eruption famine and epidemic diseases. Oppenheimer (2003) stated a modified number of at least 71,000 deaths in total. Reid takes note of the total direct and indirect deaths caused beyond Sumbawa, in Bali and elsewhere, and suggests that a figure of perhaps 100,000 deaths is an appropriate estimate.</p><br>
<h2>Disruption of global temperatures</h2><br>
<p>The conditions during the northern hemisphere summer of 1816 were the result of the largest observed eruption in recorded human history, one during which global temperatures decreased by an average of 0.53 °C (0.954 °F), and related human deaths were reported to be about 90,000. The importance of volcanic eruptions during this anomaly, specifically the eruption of Mount Tambora, cannot be overlooked. It is the most significant factor in this important climate anomaly across the globe. While there were other eruptions during the year of 1815, Tambora is classified as a VEI-7 and an eruption column 45 km tall, eclipsing all others by at least one order of magnitude.</p><br>
<p>The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is used to quantify the amount of ejected material with a VEI-7 being 100 km; every index value below that is one order of magnitude (meaning, ten times) less. Furthermore, the 1815 eruption occurred during a Dalton Minimum, a period of unusually low solar radiation. Volcanism plays a large role in climate shifts, both locally and globally. This was not always understood and did not enter scientific circles as fact until Krakatoa erupted in 1883 and tinted the skies orange.</p><br>
<p>The scale of the volcanic eruption will determine the significance of the impact on climate and other chemical processes, but a change will be measured even in the most local of environments. When volcanoes erupt they eject CO2, H2O, H2, SO2, HCl, HF, and many other gases (Meronen et al. 2012). CO2 and H2O are greenhouse gases, responsible for 0.0394% and 0.4% of the atmosphere respectively. Their small ratio disguises their significant role in trapping solar insolation and reradiating it back to Earth.</p><br>
<h3>Global effects</h3><br>
<p>The 1815 eruption released sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the stratosphere, causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have estimated the ejected sulphur mass during the eruption: the petrological method; an optical depth measurement based on anatomical observations; and the polar ice core sulfate concentration method, using cores from Greenland and Antarctica. The figures vary depending on the method, ranging from 10 to 120 million tonnes.</p><br>
<p>In the spring and summer of 1815, a persistent "dry fog" was observed in the northeastern United States. The fog reddened and dimmed the sunlight, such that sunspots were visible to the naked eye. Neither wind nor rainfall dispersed the "fog". It was identified as a stratospheric sulfate aerosol veil. In summer 1816, countries in the Northern Hemisphere suffered extreme weather conditions, dubbed the Year Without a Summer. Average global temperatures decreased about 0.4–0.7 °C (0.7–1.3 °F), enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe. On 4 June 1816, frosts were reported in the upper elevations of New Hampshire, Maine, Vermont and northern New York. On 6 June 1816, snow fell in Albany, New York, and Dennysville, Maine. Such conditions occurred for at least three months and ruined most agricultural crops in North America. Canada experienced extreme cold during that summer. Snow 30 cm deep accumulated near Quebec City from 6 to 10 June 1816.</p><br>
<p>The second-coldest year in the Northern Hemisphere since around 1400 was 1816, and the 1810s are the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora&#39;s 1815 eruption and another possible VEI 7 eruption that took place in late 1808. The surface temperature anomalies during the summer of 1816, 1817, and 1818 were −0.51 °C (−0.92 °F), −0.44 °C (−0.79 °F) and −0.29 °C (−0.52 °F), respectively. As well as a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced a stormier winter.</p><br>
<p>This climate anomaly has been blamed for the severity of typhus epidemics in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean between 1816 and 1819. The climate changes disrupted the Indian monsoons, caused three failed harvests and famine contributing to the spread of a new strain of cholera originating in Bengal in 1816.</p><br>
<p>Peterson, Doug LAS News (Spring 2010) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign p. 11. Many livestock died in New England during the winter of 1816–1817. Cool temperatures and heavy rains resulted in failed harvests in Britain and Ireland. Families in Wales travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat, and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply and demonstrations in front of grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson, and looting, took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>Effects of volcanism</h2><br>
<p>Volcanism affects the atmosphere in two distinct ways: short-term cooling due to reflected insolation, and long-term warming due to increased CO2 levels. Most of the water vapor and CO2 is collected in clouds within a few weeks to months because both are already present in large quantities, so the effects are limited (Bodenmann et al. 2011). SO2, along with other aerosols and particulates, is responsible for global cooling, nullifying the effects of the greenhouse gas emissions due to its ability to be found higher in the atmosphere and its efficiency at bonding with any water vapour found in the upper "dry" atmosphere. Sulfuric acid is exceptional at blocking solar radiation and it usually takes months to years for it to acquire enough water vapor to fall back to Earth. It has been suggested that a volcanic eruption in 1809 may have previously contributed to a reduction in global temperatures.</p><br>
<h2>Impact of the eruption</h2><br>
<p>By most calculations, the eruption of Tambora was at least a full order of magnitude larger than that of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. (Graft et al. 1993) An estimated 1,220 m of the top of the mountain was reduced to rubble ash, reducing the height of the summit by a third. Around 100 km3 of rock was blasted into the air. (Williams 2012). Toxic gases also were pumped into the atmosphere, including sulfur that caused lung infections. (Cole-Dai et al. 2009) Volcanic ash was over 100 cm deep within 75 km of the eruption, while areas within a 500 km radius saw a 5 cm ash fall, and ash could be found as far away as 1,300 km. The ash burned and smothered crops, creating an immediate shortage of food in Indonesia. (Cole-Dai et al. 2009) The ejection of these gases, especially hydrogen chloride, caused the precipitation to be extremely acidic, killing much of the crops that survived or were rebudding during the spring. The food shortages were compounded by the Napoleonic wars, floods, and cholera.</p><br>
<p>The ash in the atmosphere for several months after the eruption reflected significant amounts of solar radiation, causing unseasonably cool summers that caused food shortages. China, Europe, and North America had well-documented below normal temperatures, devastating their harvests. The monsoon season in China and India was altered, causing flooding in the Yangtze Valley and forcing thousands of Chinese to flee coastal areas. (Granados et al. 2012) The gases also reflected some of the already-decreased incoming solar radiation, causing a 0.4 to 0.7 °C (0.7 to 1.3 °F) decrease in global temperatures throughout the decade. An ice dam formed in Switzerland during the summers of 1816 and 1817, earning 1816 the title "Year without a Summer". (Bodenmann et al. 2011) The winter months of 1816 were not much different from previous years, but the spring and summer maintained the cool-to-freezing temperatures. The winter of 1817, however, was radically differed, with temperatures below −30 &deg;F in central and northern New York, which were cold enough to freeze lakes and rivers used for transporting supplies. Both Europe and North America suffered from freezes lasting well into June, with snow accumulating to 32 cm in August, which killed recently planted crops and crippled the food industry. The growing seasons in parts of Massachusetts and New Hampshire were less than 80 days in 1816, resulting in harvest failures. (Oppenheimer 2003) Visually unique sunsets were observed in western Europe, and red fog was observed along the eastern coast of the USA These unique atmospheric conditions persisted for the better part of 2.5 years. (Robock 2000)</p><br>
<p>Scientists have used ice cores to monitor atmospheric gases during the cold decade (1810–1819), and the results have been puzzling. The sulfate concentrations found in both Siple Station, Antarctica and central Greenland bounced from 5.0 in January 1816 to 1.1 in August 1818. This means that 25–30 teragrams of sulfur were ejected into the atmosphere, most of which came from Tambora, followed by a rapid decrease through natural processes. Tambora caused the largest shift in sulfur concentrations in ice cores for the past 5,000 years. Estimates of the sulfur yield vary from 10 teragrams (Black et al. 2012) to 120 teragrams (Stothers 2000), with the average of the estimates being 25–30 teragrams. The high concentrations of sulfur could have caused a four-year stratospheric warming of around 15 °C (27 °F), resulting in a delayed cooling of surface temperatures that lasted for nine years. (Cole-Dai et al. 2009) This has been dubbed a "volcanic winter", similar to a nuclear winter because of the overall decrease in temperatures and abysmal farming conditions.</p><br>
<p>Climate data have shown that the variance between daily lows and highs may have played a role in the lower average temperature because the fluctuations were much more subdued. Generally, the mornings were warmer because of nightly cloud cover and the evenings were cooler because the clouds had dissipated. There were documented fluctuations of cloud cover for various locations that suggested it was a nightly occurrence and the sun killed them off, much like a fog. The class boundaries between 1810–1830 without volcanically perturbed years was around 7.9 °C (14.2 °F). This is contrasted by the volcanically perturbed years (1815–1817) where the change was only around 2.3 °C (4.1 °F). This meant that the mean annual cycle in 1816 was more linear than bell shaped and 1817 endured cooling across the board. Southeastern England, northern France, and the Netherlands experienced the greatest amount of cooling in Europe, accompanied by New York, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Rhode Island in North America. (Bodenmann et al. 2011)</p><br>
<p>The documented rainfall was as much as 80 percent more than the calculated normal with regards to 1816, with unusually high amounts of snow in Switzerland, France, Germany, and Poland. This is again contrasted by the unusually low precipitations in 1818, which caused droughts throughout most of Europe and Asia. (Auchmann et al. 2012) Russia had already experienced unseasonably warm and dry summers since 1815 and this continued for the next three years. There are also documented reductions in ocean temperature near the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. This seems to have been an indicator of shifted oceanic circulation patterns and possibly changed wind direction and speed. (Meronen et al. 2012) This is further supported by the a British fleet sent to explore the Arctic Circle. They found large ice sheets miles off the coast of Greenland, where two years prior they had been limited to the near-shore waters of eastern Greenland. Contemporary scientists have attributed the "Year Without a Summer" to the drifting polar ice sheets rather than the eruption of Tambora because of their proximity to England.</p><br>
<p>Taking into account the Dalton Minimum and the presence of famine and droughts predating the eruption, the Tambora eruption accelerated or exacerbated the extreme climate conditions of 1815. While other eruptions and other climatological events would have led to a global cooling of about 0.2 °C (0.4 °F), Tambora increased that number substantially.</p><br>
<h2>Comparison of selected volcanic eruptions</h2><br>
<p>Source: Oppenheimer (2003), and Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program for VEI.</p><br>
<p>Hyrcania  was an ancient fortress in the Judean Desert. The site was rebuilt during the Byzantine period as a monastery called Kastellion.</p><br>
<p>The site is located on an isolated hill about 200 m above the Hyrcania valley, on its western edge. It is about 5 km west of Qumran, and 16 km east of Jerusalem. The site has not yet been thoroughly excavated. Current knowledge about the ruins of the site is based on a limited number of test pits.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Hasmonean fortress</h3><br>
<p>Hyrcania was apparently built by John Hyrcanus or his son Alexander Jannaeus in the 2nd or 1st century BC. The first mention of the fortress is during the reign of Salome Alexandra, the wife of Jannaeus, c. 75 BC: Flavius Josephus relates that, along with Machaerus and Alexandrion, Hyrcania was one of three fortresses that the queen did not give up when she handed control of her strongholds to the Pharisee party.</p><br>
<p>The fortress is mentioned again in 57 BC when Alexander of Judaea, son of Aristobulus II, fled from the Roman governor of Syria, Aulus Gabinius, who had come to suppress the revolt Alexander had stirred up against Hyrcanus II. Alexander made to re-fortify Hyrcania, but eventually surrendered to Gabinius. The fortress was then razed. The Greek geographer Strabo also notes the destruction, along with that of Alexandrion and Machaerus, the "haunts of the robbers and the treasure-holds of the tyrants", at the direction of Gabinius&#39;s superior, the Roman general Pompey.</p><br>
<h3>Herodian fortress</h3><br>
<p>Hyrcania is next reported in 33–32 BC being used in an uprising against Herod the Great led by the sister of Herod&#39;s executed former rival Antigonus. The fortress was retaken, and extended; it became notorious as a place where Herod imprisoned and killed his enemies, ultimately including his own son and heir Antipater.</p><br>
<h3>Monastery of Kastellion</h3><br>
<p>In later times St Sabbas the Sanctified founded a residence (cenobium) for hermits on the site in 492 AD, called the Kastellion, part of the satellite community or lavra associated with the monastery at Mar Saba 4 km to the south-west. Hermits remained until the 14th century, with a brief attempt made to re-establish the community between 1923 and 1939. This identification is based on Vita Sabae, the vita or biography of St Sabbas, and is generally accepted by researchers. The Aramaic descriptive term marda, "fortress", corresponds in meaning to the Greek name Kastellion, but should not be seen as a proper name for the site, Marda as a location name being reserved, as we can see from the vita of St Euthymius, for Masada, the Herodian palace-fortress near the Dead Sea which was briefly resettled by Byzantine monks.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation</h2><br>
<p>Some have identified the Hyrcania valley below the fortress with the Biblical valley of Achor, which is identified in the Copper Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls as the site of a great treasure. This has led to interest by treasure hunters in the area, despite it being subject to live-fire exercises by the Israeli army.</p><br>
<p>Woolwich, also known as Woolwich St Mary, was an ancient parish containing the town of Woolwich on the south bank of the Thames and North Woolwich on the north bank. The parish was governed by its vestry from the 16th century to 1852, based in the Church of St Mary until 1842, after which in the purpose-built Woolwich Town Hall. The parish adopted the Public Health Act 1848 and was governed by the Woolwich Local Board of Health from 1852. When the parish became part of the district of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1855 the local board was treated as if it were an incorporated vestry. It was in the county of Kent until it was transferred to London in 1889. In 1900 it was amalgamated with other parishes to form the Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich and had only nominal existence until it was abolished as a civil parish in 1930. Since 1965 it has been split between the Royal Borough of Greenwich and the London Borough of Newham.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The main part of the parish was a roughly triangular area south of the River Thames, including the town of Woolwich. The boundary with Plumstead to the east was very close to the centre of the town, located approximately where the Woolwich Arsenal station is now. The parish narrowed further south, including Woolwich Common and reaching to Shooter&#39;s Hill Road. The western boundary at this point was with Charlton Common in the parish of Charlton. North of the Thames the parish included two nearby sections of land known as North Woolwich. The western part was divided from the eastern section by the parish of East Ham. The eastern section stretched to the River Roding and had a boundary with the parish of Barking. The former area of the parish is now part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich to the south of the River Thames and the London Borough of Newham to the north.</p><br>
<h2>Governance</h2><br>
<p>The Parliamentary Boundaries Act 1832, which transferred county exclaves to their local counties for election of members of parliament, explicitly treated the North Woolwich area as part of Kent. The Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844, applied the 1832 designations for all civil purposes.</p><br>
<p>The parish became part of the Greenwich Poor Law Union in 1836 and then the Woolwich Poor Law Union from 1868.</p><br>
<p>Woolwich was added to the Registrar General definition of the London Metropolis in 1837, appearing in the weekly tables of mortality from 1840. The parish was added to the Metropolitan Police District in 1840.</p><br>
<p>The vestry built a town hall, now known as the Old Town Hall in 1842.</p><br>
<p>The parish adopted the Public Health Act 1848 and a local board was formed in 1852, consisting of eighteen elected members and three nominated members.</p><br>
<p>In 1855 the parish was included in the district of the Metropolitan Board of Works. It was an anomaly amongst metropolitan parishes, having a local board of health, and this was treated as if it were an incorporated vestry.</p><br>
<p>Following the Local Government Act 1888, the parish was transferred from the County of Kent to the County of London in 1889.</p><br>
<p>Elsewhere in England, following the Local Government Act 1894, local boards of health became urban district councils. The Woolwich Local Board of Health continued to exist until 1900 when, as part of the provisions of the London Government Act 1899, the parish was combined with Eltham and Plumstead to form the Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich.</p><br>
<p>The parish continued to exist for election of a board of guardians, but was abolished for this purpose in 1930. The parishes in the Borough of Woolwich were then combined into a single parish.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>From 1832 the more urbanised northern part of the parish was in the parliamentary borough of Greenwich with the southern part of the parish in the West Kent division. In 1885 the whole parish was included as part of the Woolwich constituency. In 1918 it was split, with the parish of Woolwich mostly becoming part of Woolwich West, with a small part in Woolwich East.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The population at the decennial census was:</p><br>
<p>The Bowstring State Forest is a state forest located in Itasca and Cass Counties in Minnesota. It is located entirely within the boundaries of the federally managed Chippewa National Forest, and is managed by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.</p><br>
<p>The 56,470 acre Lake Winnibigoshish is located entirely within the forest; additionally the forest has public access to Leech Lake and Cass Lake. Fish species found in the lakes within the forest include walleye, northern pike, yellow perch, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, crappie and bluegill. Boating and swimming are also available on the lakes. Other outdoor recreation opportunities include hunting and backcountry camping. Trails are provided for cross-country skiing, hiking, snowmobiling, mountain biking, and Class I and II all-terrain vehicle use.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Bowstring State Forest was de facto established in 1927, when state lands within the boundaries of the Minnesota National Forest were withdrawn from sale and directed to be managed in the same fashion as other state forest lands. The forest was formally established as the Bowstring State Forest in 1963. It is named after Bowstring Lake, located within the forest.</p><br>
<p>The Daniel LeRoy House is located at 20 St. Marks Place in the East Village neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The Greek Revival building was built in 1832 as part of a development by Thomas E. Davis of 3½-story brick houses which spanned both sides of the street. The Daniel LeRoy house is one of the three surviving houses of this development, the other two being 25 St. Marks Place and the Hamilton-Holly House at 4 St. Marks Place. It has a marble entrance ornamented with vermiculated blocks. LeRoy was an in-law of Peter Stuyvesant, and a South Street merchant, who lived in the house with his wife Elizabeth Fish, of the eminent Fish family.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1969, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 29, 1982. In Spring 1998, restorations were made on the house, including repainting, repointing brickwork and replacing cornices.</p><br>
<p>Apparsuit Island  is an uninhabited island in the Qaasuitsup municipality in northwestern Greenland. Cape Shackleton, the western promontory of the island, marks the northernmost extent of Tasiusaq Bay, an indentiation of Baffin Bay.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island is characteristic for its cliffs falling to the sea from all sides, providing shelter and a breeding ground for thousands of seabirds. Together with the cliffs of Qaarsorsuaq Island in the southern part of the archipelago, the number of birds reached millions. The cliffs were harvested for eggs starting from 1875, when the northbound migrations of Greenlanders from Upernavik reached the islands north of Tasiusaq. The eggs are occasionally harvested to this day.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Apparsuit Island is located at the northern end of Tasiusaq Bay, in the north-central part of Upernavik Archipelago. It is an offlying island in the archipelago, separated from Qullikorsuit Island in the east by Appaalissiorfiup Ikerasaa strait, part of the old maritime route from Upernavik to Melville Bay. The highest point is an unnamed mountain of 658 m in the south of the island.</p><br>
<p>The Isaac T. Hopper House, a Greek Revival townhouse at 110 Second Avenue between East 6th and 7th Streets in the East Village neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, next to the New Middle Collegiate Church, was built in 1837-38. It was built as a rowhouse, and was originally the residence of David H. Robertson, a merchant who later went bankrupt. The house then became the home of Ralph and Ann E. Van Wyck Mead, one of four rowhouses used by their extended family. It remained owned by the Mead family until 1870, and in 1874 was purchased by the Womens Prison Association, founded by Quaker abolitionists and prison reformers Isaac Tatem Hopper and his daughter Abigail Hopper Gibbons. The Isaac T. Hopper Home continues to serve the Womens Prison Association as a halfway house.</p><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986, and was designated a New York City landmark in 2009. It is also located within the East Village/Lower East Side Historic District, which was created in October 2012.</p><br>
<p>The Mrs. Graham Fair Vanderbilt House is a mansion located at 60 East 93rd Street on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 29, 1982.</p><br>
<p>The home was built in 1930 as a residence for Virginia Fair Vanderbilt, who was a daughter of James Graham Fair and the ex-wife of William Kissam Vanderbilt II. It was designed by John Russell Pope in the Classical Revival style.</p><br>
<p>The house served as a location for the Lycée français de New York for many years until the school completed a new building around 2003. The mansion now serves as a gallery for Carlton Hobbs LLC, an antique dealer specializing in fine European furniture and works of art.</p><br>
<p>It is located beside the William Goadby Loew House at 56 East 93rd Street.</p><br>
<p>Innaarsuit Island  is an island in the Qaasuitsup municipality in northwestern Greenland, home to the Innaarsuit settlement.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Innaarsuit Island is located in the outer belt of islands in Tasiusaq Bay, in the south-central part of Upernavik Archipelago. In the north, it is separated from sibling Ateqanngitsorsuaq Island by a very narrow channel. The island is hilly, but not mountainous, with Saattup Akia mountain the highest point on the island, at 310 m. The inner waterways of Tasiusaq Bay separate it from the small Naajaat Island in the east, and from Qaarsorsuatsiaq Island in the west. Several skerries buffer the southern coast of the island.</p><br>
<p>The coastline of Innaarsuit Island is developed, with several small inlets indenting the shore in the east, west, and northwest. The Innaarsuit settlement is located near the mouth of one of the inlets, in the northwestern part of the island. The island is nearly split in half in the center, with only a narrow isthmus joining the southern and northern halves.</p><br>
<p>Kingsway  was a nightclub and casino built in 1931 at the south end of the Promenade in the seaside resort of Southport, Merseyside, England. In the 1960s it hosted many well-known celebrities, such as The Beatles, Tom Jones, and Engelbert Humperdinck. It was also very popular during the 1980s punk era and the 1990s dance era.</p><br>
<p>The nightclub and bar closed in 2004 and reopened for a short time during 2006 before closing its doors for the last time in 2007. In 2008 plans were put forward to demolish the site and build a luxury hotel, apartments and retail complex, none of which came to fruition. On 6 September 2010, a major fire destroyed the derelict building. The building was demolished two days later.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Kingsway was built in the 1931 in an art deco style with large portrait windows and hexagonal turrets with hexagonal windows. It was constructed over three floors, the basement being a bar, the ground floor being a nightclub, and the top floor being a casino.</p><br>
<p>On 22 January 1962 the Beatles had their first gig at Kingsway, which was then known as the Kingsway Club. On 5 February 1962, Ringo Starr made his debut with the Beatles at Kingsway when he replaced then-drummer Pete Best, who was ill at the time. The Beatles are known to have made 7 appearances at the Kingsway in 1962 before moving onto bigger projects and fame.</p><br>
<p>The Kingsway also hosted performances by Tom Jones, Engelbert Humperdinck, Norman Wisdom (while filming Whats Good for the Goose film at the Birkdale Palace Hotel in 1969), Larry Grayson, Tom OConnor, and Cilla Black.</p><br>
<p>Golfer Lee Trevino visited the casino of the Kingsway during the Open Golf in the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>In the 1960s, 1980s and 1990s, the Kingsway was Southport&#39;s major nightclub, attracting very large crowds of partygoers every weekend.Cabaret acts were booked for the week, and audiences were thin on the ground Monday to Thursday; and for a comedian it was a hard club to work on those nights. In the late 1990s it was renamed "Bliss". It also added a bingo hall.</p><br>
<p>The Kingsway was closed in 2003 and reopened in November 2006. The nightclub was reopened as "Kingsway" and the bar re-opened as "Berlin&#39;s Bar" by well known club owner Paul Clarke. This new start was short-lived; the nightclub closed the following year.</p><br>
<p>Longest serving member of staff was DJ Jay 19 years hosting and djing over nearly 2 decades.</p><br>
<p>For the next 3 years, the building stood empty and fell into disrepair. In 2008, a £9 million plan was announced to demolish the site and build a 100-room hotel, 54 apartments, and 4,000 ft&sup2; of retail space. However, none of the designs that were put forward came to a practical stage. Structural work in 2009 was carried out to support part of the building, as it had become unsafe.</p><br>
<h3>Fire</h3><br>
<p>On 6 September 2010, a major fire destroyed the derelict building, attracting much attention from national media. The fire, with flames reaching 80 ft high, was attended to by 50 firefighters and took 12 hours to extinguish. The southwest facade of the building collapsed onto the Kingsway road after the roof caved in during the fire.</p><br>
<p>The damage was so severe that demolition commenced on 8 September 2010. The roads around the building were closed due to the building&#39;s dangerous state and the risk of further collapse. A day after the demolition, a spokesperson for the Merseyside Fire and Rescue Department said that the blaze was caused by arson.</p><br>
<p>St. Mary’s Academy is a historic building located in a residential area of the West End of Davenport, Iowa, United States. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. The building was built as a school building for St. Mary’s Catholic Church, which is listed separately on the National Register.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The structure was built in the 19th century during the pastorate of the Rev. Michael Flavin who served the parish from 1871 to 1884. After the parish built a new school and convent across the street from the church during the pastorate of Msgr. J.P. Ryan It was at this time that the rear chapel addition was built. The name of the building was referred to then as St. Mary&#39;s Home. The structure was later converted into apartments.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building is constructed of red brick in the Romanesque Revival style. Bands of rough cut stone are placed above the windows and the same stonework frames the main entrance. The 3-1/2 story building features a rectangular plan, a hipped roof, advanced corner and end pavilions with parapet gables and a symmetrical front. Decorative brickwork may be found across the top of the building, just below the roofline. The main entrance is constructed of cast iron and features art glass and Greek fret decorative elements. A statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary remains in the niche at the top of the entrance tower.</p><br>
<p>Nipisat Island  is a small, uninhabited island in the Qeqqata municipality in central-western Greenland.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Nipisat Island is situated 15 km south of Sisimiut, on the shores of Davis Strait. It belongs to the group of small islands and skerries located at the mouth of Ikertooq Fjord, immediately to the west of Sarfannguit Island. Dwarf scrub heath, dwarf birch, Arctic willow, well-drained lichens, and herb vegetation dominate the flora.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 18th century, the Danes and Norwegians came to Nipisat. In 1723, Hans Egede found native people actively engaged in hunting large whalebone whales in Nipisat and the Danes established the first settlement, a trading station here. Two years later, a small mission was established on the island, but it was abandoned the following year, and then burnt down by Dutch whalers. In 1727, the Norwegians Ditlev Vibe and Bishop Deichmann of Christiania recommended to the King of Denmark the re-establishment of a trade station at Nipisat and the establishment of a whaling station. In 1728, Frederick I of Denmark ordered a fortress be constructed at Nipisat, but two years later, he ordered its abandonment and evacuation.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The island is notable for its well preserved Saqqaq culture archaeological site, containing some stone artifacts that were previously unknown from the Saqqaq culture. The Saqqaq people are not the ancestors of modern Kalaallit people, rather they are related to modern Chukchi and Koryak peoples. The site, named after the island, was discovered in 1989 by Finn Kramer, curator of the Sisimiut Museum. It lies approximately 50 m from the present coastline, situated on raised beaches with a southeastern slope. The area elevation ranges between 9 mand 13 m above mean sea level. This part of the island that contains the archaeological site, did not show signs of later occupation by Dorset culture or Thule culture. However, it does show signs of pre-Dorset, and of Arctic small tool tradition. During the five year evacuation period of 1989-1994, over 70,000 bone fragments and approximately 1,000 artifacts were recovered, including 314 tools.</p><br>
<p>Mount Carmel A.M.E. Zion Church & Campground is a historic African Methodist Episcopal Zion church camp in Heath Springs, South Carolina, Lancaster County, South Carolina. It was established in 1866 and consists of a complex of approximately 55 small “cabins” or “tents” and the brick church of Mt. Carmel A.M.E. Zion Church is located in the general form of a rectangle. Mount Carmel A.M.E Zion Church Campmeeting starts every year on the first Wednesday in September, and last for 4–5 days. An “arbor,” or open-air structure, is located in the center of the complex, where music, gospel singing, praise and worship, preaching and teachings are held. People come to worship, fellowship, network, and eat food from as far as New York City, NY to Orlando, FL. There is also a section on the grounds for vendors. The majority of the cabins are small frame, some are two story cabins for larger families made from concrete block and wooden structures. Also on the property is the church cemetery.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<p>Waxhaw Presbyterian Church Cemetery, also known as Old Waxhaw Cemetery, is a historic Presbyterian church cemetery located near Lancaster, Lancaster County, South Carolina. It was founded in 1757 and is a visual reminder of the pioneer settlement of Waxhaw. It includes noteworthy examples of 18th and 19th century tombstones.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>William Richardson Davie, Governor of North Carolina, 1798</p><br>
<p>Andrew Jackson, Sr., father of Andrew Jackson</p><br>
<p>Andrew Pickens, Sr. and Ann Pickens, parents of Andrew Pickens, USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>James H. Witherspoon, Lt. Governor of South Carolina, 1826-1828</p><br>
<p>Casualties of "Buford&#39;s Massacre", May 28, 1780</p><br>
<p>Long Cane Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church is a historic Reformed Presbyterian church of the Associate Synod of the South  within McCormick County, South Carolina four miles west of Troy, South Carolina on SC 33-36. Adjacent to the church building is a cemetery dating to circa 1790.</p><br>
<p>The church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.</p><br>
<h2>History of congregation</h2><br>
<p>Long Cane&#39;s origins date to 1771, when the church was established as an Associate Presbyterian congregation, one of several fostered before the American Revolution by Dr. Thomas Clark (d. 1792). Clark and one hundred families had emigrated from Ireland in 1764, and had settled in Stillwater, and then Salem, New York; several families soon moved south, settling near Long Cane Creek, near what was then called "the Calhoun settlement" in the South Carolina backcountry. Dr. Clark himself moved to South Carolina in 1782 and served as minister of the Long Cane, Cedar Creek (later Cedar Springs), and Little Run (or Little River) congregations until he returned to the North in mid-1783, but returned to the Long Cane and Cedar Creek settlement shortly after the American Revolution, remaining here until his death.</p><br>
<p>The original congregation at Long Cane was called "the Fort Boone congregation" because church, school, and physical security was provided in the fortifications (built after the Indian massacre of 1760) of Fort Boone. The original congregation at Long Cane united with the Cedar Springs Church on March 7, 1786 and withdrew on September 15, 1808. A later part of the congregation moved to the Presbyterian Church during 1818-1819, but reunited with the Cedar Springs Church from 1828 to 1892.</p><br>
<h2>History of current building</h2><br>
<p>This current Greek Revival church building was constructed by William Henry Jones of Atlanta, a building contractor, and dedicated by Dr. Sloan on July 20, 1856. During the dedication Dr. Sloan preached from Habakkuk 2:20, "But the Lord is in His Holy Temple; let all the earth keep silent before Him". The wooden structure is 44 x 64 feet with a 10-foot porch and gallery around three sides. It remains largely original except for additions of small rooms near the pulpit which were added in 1892 when the church discontinued the use of the Session House in back of the church, which had served also as a school. Its cemetery of more than 500 graves includes burials of several charter members of Long Cane Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church from the period 1790-1856, when this church was exceptionally significant in the formation, growth, and development of the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church as a whole. The church rests on a foundation of handmade brick piers, with a pierced brick curtain wall added at a later date. The façade features a fully engaged tetrastyle Roman Doric portico with an unadorned entablature and a steeply pitched pediment. Originally covered in wooden shingles, the roof was by ca. 1950 covered with diamond-shaped asbestos shingles. A small brick flue pierces the roof ridge at the center of the building. The interior auditorium is two stories in height with flushboard walls and ceiling. The gallery features a continuously paneled knee wall, ranked wooden floors, and simple handmade pews.</p><br>
<h2>List of pastors</h2><br>
<p>Rev. Thomas Clark, 1786–1791</p><br>
<p>Rev. Peter McMullen, (interim)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Alex Porter, 1797–1803</p><br>
<p>Rev. John T. Pressly, 1828–1831</p><br>
<p>Rev. W. R. Hemphill, 1837–1848</p><br>
<p>Rev. H. T. Sloan, 1850-1890</p><br>
<p>Dr. Robert Foster Bradley, 1891–1930</p><br>
<p>Washington Street United Methodist Church is a historic church at 1401 Washington Street in Columbia, South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>It was built in 1872 and added to the National Register in 1970.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On December 15, 1803 John Harper and a small number of Methodists in Columbia decided to build a church on the corner of Washington and Marion streets. The following year, a church building was erected and congregations have been worshiping at the site ever since.</p><br>
<p>The first building was a plain wooden structure, which was completed in 1804. That building stood where the present sanctuary stands today. It was the first church building to be constructed in Columbia. Because several Methodist churches have sprung from its founding, Washington Street has been called the “Mother Church” of Methodism in Columbia. The Reverend John Harper, the founder of the church, was ordained by John Wesley, and Bishop Francis Asbury visited and shepherded the young congregation until his death in 1815.</p><br>
<p>A young William Capers was appointed pastor of Washington Street Church in 1818 and was reappointed to Washington Street Church in 1831, 1835, and 1846 and was consecrated bishop in 1846. In 1829 at the urging of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, a prominent planter, Capers founded the Methodist Episcopal Church’s mission to slaves and served as the mission’s first superintendent. He was one of four Washington Street pastors to become a bishop. He lies buried beneath the altar of the sanctuary.</p><br>
<p>Twenty-seven years after the first small church was built, a wave of religious enthusiasm dictated the need for a larger building to accommodate the crowds attending services. The cornerstone for a substantial brick building was laid at the same site as the previous smaller church on June 14, 1831. That building was destroyed by fire on February 17–18, 1865, when the troops of General William T. Sherman captured and burned Columbia. According to legend, the Union troops were looking for the First Baptist Church, original site of the secession convention, and were directed to Washington Street Church by the Baptist sexton. A small, temporary church with a seating capacity of 400 was constructed in 1866 from brick salvaged from the burned church.</p><br>
<p>The Reverend William Martin, who once served as a pastor of Washington Street Church and whose family played an important role in the city of Columbia during and after the Civil War, traveled throughout the South and in the North as far as Philadelphia, New York, and Buffalo, telling Washington Street’s story and soliciting funds for its rebuilding. The fourth and current building, constructed from a Gothic Revival design was dedicated on June 20, 1875.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>A stained-glass window with a cross and crown motif is a memorial to the Reverend William Martin. That window was placed in an alcove high above the pulpit in 1900. Another window portraying Christ in the Temple is located in the Leavitt Choir Room, formerly part of the 1901 Sunday school building. Windows depicting the life of Christ with no human figures line the walls of the sanctuary. These windows were dedicated on Easter Sunday 1914.</p><br>
<p>Music for services is provided by a E.M. Skinner organ located in the choir loft. This instrument was obtained through the efforts of D.A. Pressley, long-time organist and director of music. The organ was completed in February 1922.</p><br>
<p>A Sunday school building was added in 1928. The 1959 addition includes Christ Chapel, Threatt Fellowship Hall, and a kitchen. Christ Chapel was dedicated during Holy Week of 1960. The windows of Christ Chapel depict the life of Christ, his humanity and his divinity. The Rose Window on the back wall contains the “I am” sayings from the Book of John. Panels by Jean McWhorter depict the church year. The Christ Chapel courtyard was dedicated in 1998. The courtyard contains several plantings: variegated elaeagnus from John Wesley’s London Chapel, ivy from the Wesley parsonage at Epworth, and ten miniature boxwoods from the original stock planted at George Washington’s home at Mount Vernon in 1798.</p><br>
<p>The courtyard between the education building and the sanctuary was renovated during 2003. The courtyard is a memorial garden and contains a columbarium with 36 niches for the interment of cremated remains. Graves in this garden go back to the early 1800s. In the garden is the tombstone of William Maxwell Martin, the son of the Rev. William Martin. Many historical accounts claim that he was the first casualty of the Civil War. The tombstone appears to be broken, but actually it was left “unfinished,” symbolizing his death at an early age. A fragment of stone is mounted on the wall. This fragment is part of a tablet that was placed in the church in 1857 along with two other memorial tablets and is part of the Rev. William M. Kennedy’s tablet. It is all that was left after the burning of the church in February 1865.</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s the church began a soup cellar to serve the many needy homeless people in Columbia, and a Children’s Development Center to serve preschoolers was started.</p><br>
<p>A Children’s Library on the second floor of the education building was opened on May 21, 2000. The library provides children with books and other reading materials. There are over 1200 books currently available in the library. A stained glass window shows Jesus with the little children. It was given in honor of Washington Street member Nan Self, who has dedicated her life to the education of children, both in public school and at Washington Street. The animal furniture and other child-related items add to the ambience of the room.</p><br>
<p>The McDonald Library was moved to the second floor in 2004. This library supports the educational programs of the church. The collection contains over 1500 books on theology, Bible study, philosophy and ethics, church history, and biographies of famous theologians and other religious persons. In addition to the libraries, an improved History and Archives Room was set up on the third floor. The room is temperature controlled and items are alphabetically filed by category. Washington Street United Methodist Church is one of only two churches in the South Carolina Conference to receive the Herbert A. Hucks award twice. These awards were given to the church for its efforts in the preservation of history. A museum in which artifacts are displayed is located just outside the Archives and History Room. A chair once owned by Bishop William Capers is a featured item on display. Two new classrooms now occupy the former senior minister’s study and McDonald Library space.</p><br>
<p>The music ministry continues to be an important activity at Washington Street United Methodist Church. A new Steinway grand piano was purchased for the sanctuary in 2007 and the E.M. Skinner organ was refurbished and dedicated as the Ralph R. Rozier E.M. Skinner organ in 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Leadership</h2><br>
<p>Washington Street Church has been served by four bishops: James O. Andrew, William Capers, A. Coke Smith, and J. O. Smith. Over the years, the clergy and lay members have pioneered in the fields of Christian education, missions, and social service.</p><br>
<p>Episcopal Church of the Advent is a historic Episcopal church at 141 Advent Street in Spartanburg, South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>The Gothic Revival building was constructed in 1851 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.</p><br>
<p>The Church of Advent is significant both as the home of the first Episcopal congregation organized in Spartanburg County, and as an excellent example of a Gothic Revival sanctuary and church complex designed before the Civil War, with significant alterations and additions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The sanctuary was designed in 1851 by the Reverend John DeWitt McCollough, rector at the Church of Advent 1850-1857 and 1859-1875, with later major alterations and additions designed by Silas McBee (1853-1954) and A. H. Ellwood and Sons in 1897. McCollough is also known to have designed a number of other churches in South Carolina. Major H.J. Dean’s quarry supplied the granite for the church, and slaves or free blacks, including several skilled carpenters, performed much of the labor. The sanctuary was finally completed in early 1864; a bell tower was added in 1870. The sanctuary was enlarged in 1897 to its current cruciform plan. Pendleton Hall, built 1912-13 as an addition to the north side of the sanctuary and designed by A. H. Ellwood and Sons, served as the parish hall for many years. The Church of the Advent also sponsors Boy Scout Troop No.1, founded in 1914 by Dr. Pendleton as the first Boy Scout troop organized in South Carolina. The Boy Scout hut on the church grounds was built in 1927. The church cemetery surrounds the sanctuary. Many of its monuments are of notable artistic merit.</p><br>
<p>First Presbyterian Church of Woodruff  is a historic church at 300 W. Georgia Street in Woodruff, South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>It was built in 1911 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.</p><br>
<p>On January 04, 2010 the First Presbyterian Church of Woodruff (ARP) was purchased by Paul Kaminer for a private residence named Paul&#39;s Palace. The building was restored and renovated during a 5-year renovation project into the luxurious home of Paul and Katherine Kaminer. The home features such things as a spiral staircase to the mezzanine, a six-sided master bed chamber with 14 foot ceiling, a domed ceiling over the formal areas with pilasters in each room and rosettes for decor, and a master bath with heated floor. All rooms are themed with items gleaned from around the world in the travels of Paul Kaminer including an African-themed family room, an Icelandic-themed kitchen, Oriental-themed formal livingroom and dining room, Native American-themed parlor, Gothic-themed half bath, South American themed-master bath, calla lily-themed master bed chamber, angel-themed entry hall in the bell tower, and other themes in the 4,000 sq. ft. home. The yards are terraced with statuary scattered throughout the gardens. The fully private back yard includes a hot-tub.</p><br>
<p>Salem Black River Presbyterian Church  is a historic church in Sumter, South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>This house of worship, commonly called Brick Church, was founded by Scotch-Irish settlers in 1759 on land given by Capt. David Anderson. Original log meeting house was replaced by frame building and named Salem Presbyterian Church in 1768. The first Brick Church was built in 1802 and used until 1846 when the present church was built of brick made on the grounds. The Old Session house (1846) in the rear contains a large library given by James McBride in 1862. Land for the cemetery, dating from 1794 was deeded by Robert Witherspoon in 1830. Among the notable ministers to serve this church was Dr. Thomas Reese, scholar, teacher and preacher before the American Revolution. In 1867 African-American members withdrew to form Goodwill Presbyterian Church</p><br>
<p>The Salem Black River Presbyterian Church was added to the National Register in 1978.</p><br>
<h2>Vandalism</h2><br>
<p>Satanic symbols and messages were spray-painted on the churchs exterior on September 29, 2017. The front door to the church also had been kicked in, but the interior was undamaged. Personnel at Shaw Air Force Base provided the Sumter County Sheriffs Office with names of possible suspects, resulting in four arrests.</p><br>
<p>Bethel Presbyterian Church is a historic Presbyterian church near Clover, South Carolina.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It was founded in 1764 and is the oldest church in York County, which was still considered part of North Carolina in 1764. Bethel is one of the oldest churches in the region, and is the mother church of many neighboring congregations. The church was established by Rev. William Richardson, minister of the Old Waxhaw Presbyterian Church in Lancaster County, South Carolina, to service the burgeoning population on the west side of the Catawba River.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Samuel Watson was an influential member of Bethel, as well as highly respected in the community. When talk of rebellion became general, Watson quickly rose to the cause. Watson was elected to the South Carolina Provincial Congress of 1775-1776 and participated in the framing of South Carolina&#39;s first written constitution. Colonel Watson was the grandfather of Rev. Samuel Lytle Watson, Pastor of Bethel Presbyterian Church for 42 years.</p><br>
<p>Bethel Church was incorporated by the Legislature of South Carolina, March 22, 1786, with the title, "The Presbyterian Church of Bethel Congregation".</p><br>
<p>Bethel become part of the Southern Presbyterian Church.</p><br>
<p>The present church building was the fourth house of worship, was erected in 1873.</p><br>
<p>52 Revolutionary War soldiers buried in its historic cemetery. Among them is Thomas Neel, a War of Independence hero and a founding elder of the church. Many Confederate soldiers are buried there as well.</p><br>
<p>On July 1, 1973, Bethel Presbyterian Church voted unanimously to withdraw from the Presbyterian Church US (PCUS) and join a new group of believers, the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA).</p><br>
<p>In 2014 the church celebrated its 250 anniversary.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The current church building was constructed in 1873, immediately adjacent to the earlier church, which was torn down. The current structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>The church, a local interpretation of a colonial meeting house. The heavy post and beam, hand-hewn, wooden pegged construction is unusual for so late in the century, especially when lighter, more rapid assembled methods were in common use. The king post truss used in Bethel’s roof structure is an ancient design found in some of America’s earliest churches. Bethel represents an architectural achievement during a time of political and social upheaval and economic adversity that marked the Reconstruction era. Bethel’s congregation constructed a commodious house of worship under severely reduced circumstances, doing so without incurring debt. A large well-tended cemetery covers three acres of a ridge on the property’s east side. Enclosed by a stone wall, it contained some three to four thousand graves in 1887. _ Adopted from the South Carolina Department of Archives and History</p><br>
<p>National Register Properties in South Carolina</p><br>
<h2>List of Pastors</h2><br>
<p>Rev. Hezekiah Balch 1770-1776</p><br>
<p>Rev. Francis Cummins 1782-1789</p><br>
<p>Rev. George G. McWhorter 1796-1801</p><br>
<p>Rev. James S. Adams (Stated Supply) 1811-1840</p><br>
<p>Rev. Samuel L. Watson 1840-1882</p><br>
<p>Rev. Robert A. Webb 1882-1887</p><br>
<p>Rev. G.S. Robinson 1888-1890</p><br>
<p>Rev. David S. McAllister 1891-1899</p><br>
<p>Rev. William B. Arrowood 1899-1909</p><br>
<p>Rev. Robert Adams 1910-1914</p><br>
<p>Rev. R.K. Timmons 1914-1916</p><br>
<p>Rev. George W. Nickell 1917-1924</p><br>
<p>Rev. A.H. Key 1925-1933</p><br>
<p>Dr. Tilden Scherer (Temporary Supply) 1934-1937</p><br>
<p>Dr. Tilden Scherer 1937-1950</p><br>
<p>Rev. David Coblentz 1951-1961</p><br>
<p>Rev. Kenneth L. Newman 1962-1966</p><br>
<p>Rev. James L. Moss 1967-1971</p><br>
<p>Rev. Vernon N. West 1972-1986</p><br>
<p>Rev. John A. Gess 1986–Present</p><br>
<p>The Calheta Beach is a beach located near the town Calheta, on the island of Madeira, Portugal.</p><br>
<p>Praia da Calheta is one of the few sandy beaches of Madeira, with sand imported from North Africa. However, these sand-imports were quite controversial, as the sand was taken from Western Sahara, a Non-Self Governing Territory which has been largely occupied by Morocco since 1975. The imports are considered to be a violation of international law, as the consent of the people of the territory is required in the exploitation of the territory’s resources.</p><br>
<p>The Madeira officials have neglected to consult the Saharawi people on the sand purchases and instead opted to engage in business with Morocco. The latest confirmed shipments from occupied Western Sahara to Calheta took place in 2010.</p><br>
<p>Swingfield Preceptory  was a priory about 5 miles north of Folkestone, Kent on the south coast of England.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Preceptory (headquarters of certain orders of monastic knights) was taken over by the Knights Hospitaller in 1180 after sisters of the same order were moved to Buckland Priory.</p><br>
<p>It was suppressed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries and leased on 16 March 1541 to John Thorgood and Thomas Horseley for twenty-one years.</p><br>
<p>The 13th-century St John&#39;s Chapel still survives on Swanton Lane and is under the care of English Heritage.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>It was originally built between the 13th and 16th centuries as a farmhouse of flint, which has been knapped in places. It also has stone quoins and dressings.</p><br>
<p>The west gable end is tile-hung on both floors. The north elevation retains areas of render painted and is scored to resemble red brick in Flemish bond.</p><br>
<p>Alvingham Priory was a Gilbertine priory in St. Mary, Alvingham, Lincolnshire, England.</p><br>
<p>The Priory, established between 1148 and 1154, was a "double house", where religious of both sexes lived in two separate monasteries. They did not commonly communicate with one another, and there was an internal wall dividing their priory church. The superior of every Gilbertine house was the prioress, the prior being really an official of her house.</p><br>
<p>The priory has left few visible remains. However, although the priory church has not survived, there are two churches within the priory&#39;s former precinct, both of which are pre-Reformation structures and appear to have been founded by the Anglo-Saxons.</p><br>
<p>St Adelwold&#39;s church (the parish church of Alvingham) is the only church in England which is dedicated to St. Adelwold.</p><br>
<p>St Mary&#39;s Church was originally a chapel belonging to the priory. It became the parish church of North Cockerington at the dissolution and is now under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust.</p><br>
<p>The cartulary of the priory is preserved at the Bodleian Library.</p><br>
<p>The priory was active until most of its inhabitants died from the Black Death. Men and women continued to join the house until the sixteenth century when all the monasteries of the Gilbertine Order were dissolved. Following the surrender of the house on 29 September 1538 pensions were paid to twenty people: a prior, seven canons, a prioress and eleven nuns.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Alvingham Priory was located until its dissolution in Alvingham village. The village is mentioned in the Domesday Book (Aluingeham, meaning "Homestead of the Ælfingas (the tribe of Ælf)".).</p><br>
<p>The village is surrounded by agricultural land, and lies on a small back road leading east out of Louth, Lincolnshire, called Alvingham Road. In the eighteenth century, a canal, the Louth Navigation, was constructed near the priory site: it survives as a drainage system.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Gilbertine priory of St. Mary, Alvingham, was founded as a double house between 1148 and 1154, possibly by Hugh de Scotney or one of his tenants.</p><br>
<p>The founders were possibly Hugh de Scotney or William Friston</p><br>
<p>Another possible co-founder was Hamelin Alvingham (known as Hamelin the Dean) who made substantial land donations to Alvingham Priory. He is known to have resigned from his deanery and joined Alvingham Priory as a canon (monk). The monks wore black, with white cloaks, and generally were shaven.</p><br>
<p>In a few years the convent possessed lands in Alvingham, Cockerington, and Calthorp, and the churches of St. Adelwold, Alvingham, and St. Mary, Cockerington, which stood in the same churchyard, within the precinct of the priory, and the churches of St. Leonard, Cockerington, Cawthorpe, Keddington, and Newton. Hamelin, the dean, gave three parts of the church of St. Adelwold of Alvingham, the fourth part having been given by Roger Fitz Gocelyn. In view of this endowment, St. Gilbert limited the number of inmates to eighty nuns and lay sisters, and forty canons and lay brothers.</p><br>
<p>A wise compact with the neighbouring Cistercians&#39; house of Louth Park in 1174 provided against that most fruitful source of strife, the acquisition of lands. It was agreed that neither house should hire nor acquire for a price cultivated or uncultivated lands without the consent and advice of the other. If the convent of Louth Park broke the contract the convent of Alvingham could take a third of the land for a third of the price paid. On the other hand, the convent of Louth Park could take two-thirds of the land of Alvingham for two-thirds of the price. The pact was to be kept in twenty townships in Lincolnshire.</p><br>
<p>In 1232 the priory was extended by purchasing part of the manor of Alvingham from John de Melsa. Prior to 1251 the priory and convent had granges at Alvingham, Cockerington, Grainthorpe, Keddington, Newton, Cabourne, Coningsby, and Swinfleet and various houses in Lincoln, Louth, Boston, and Great Grimsby.</p><br>
<p>Before 1251 the prior and convent had granges at Alvingham, Cockerington, Grainthorpe, Keddington, Newton, Cabourne, Coningsby, and Swinefleet, houses or rents in Lincoln, Louth, Boston, and Great Grimsby, and lands in several other townships in the county. Like many other religious houses, they profited by the embarrassment of lesser barons and knights, and in 1232 were able to purchase the greater part of the manor of Alvingham from John de Melsa, his father and mother, by paying off their debt of 87½ marks to certain Jews. He revoked the appropriation made by his predecessor, but in 1245 the priory&#39;s appeal to Pope Innocent IV was finally successful. The grant of the church of Grainthorpe by Brian of Yarborough was disputed by his sons, but the suit was decided in favour of Alvingham in 1251. In 1254 the spiritualities of the house were assessed at £56 13s. 4d., the temporalities at £53 17s. 4½d. The number of small grants in Alvingham and Cockerington suggests that the prior and convent were popular with their neighbours, or at least very successful in inducing them to part with their land. In 1291 the temporalities had increased to £81 14s. 2½d. The revenues were considerably augmented by the sale of wool, which averaged ten sacks a year at the beginning of the fourteenth century.</p><br>
<p>Edward I invited the convent to consider providing secure accommodation for Gwenllian of Wales and her cousins, the daughters of Dafydd ap Gruffydd. However, it is not known whether any of these Welsh girls stayed at the convent. The king appears to have sent similar letters to other Lincolnshire convents. Gwenllian was sent to Sempringham Priory, and her cousin Gwladys ferch Dafydd is known to have been sent to Sixhills, whereas the fate of Gwladys&#39; sisters is not known.</p><br>
<p>In 1303 the prior held half a knight&#39;s fee in Newton, half in Keddington, one-quarter in Alvingham, and one-sixth of another, a quarter in Yarborough and Grimblethorpe, one-sixth in Swinhope, one-eighth and one-fortieth in Cockerington, one-twentieth in Tathwell. In 1428 he also held a quarter in Welton. In 1402 Boniface IX granted an indulgence for the chapel of the Virgin at the gate of the priory.</p><br>
<p>The prior commented on the economic effects of the Black Death in a petition to William Alnwick, Bishop of Lincoln, in 1448. The rectors of the church of Grainthorpe had ceased for frivolous reasons to pay a pension of £10 a year, and the prior was anxious to exercise his privilege to appropriate the church, which was worth 47 marks. He pleaded that owing to floods, sterile lands, pestilence among sheep and cattle, and other sinister events in the past, the convent could not maintain its wonted hospitality. An appeal to Pope Paul II in 1465 resulted in a bull enabling the prior to hold some benefice in commendam on account of the great cost of hospitality.</p><br>
<p>In 1535 the clear yearly value of the property amounted to £128 14s. 10d. Of this sum, over £38 was drawn from rectories. The demesne lands farmed by the prior and convent were worth £20 a year. All the granges, lands, and tenements were let. The Earl of Northumberland unjustly held possession of a wood worth £10 a year. At this time the Dissolution of the Monasteries by Henry VIII was about to begin. The house was surrendered on 29 September 1538 by the prior and seven canons. The prioress and eleven nuns were included with them in the pension list. Four years later, in the hands of the crown bailiff, the property brought in £131 16s. 5d., and included the rectories of Alvingham, Cockerington St. Mary, Cockerington St. Leonard, Keddington, Grainthorpe, and Stainton, and granges, lands, and rents in those places, and at Yarborough, Stewton, South Somercotes, Wold Newton, Clee, Great Grimsby, Swinfleet, Flixborough, Normanby, Boston, Rasen, Louth, Lincoln, and elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>Robert Ingelby was the Prior of Alvingham from 1534 to 1538. Joan Barker was the Prioress of Alvingham in 1538.</p><br>
<p>There is also a seal of the 13th century, which is a pointed oval. This seal symbolizes the Virgin who is crowned, seated on a carved throne, with ornamental corbel and with the Child sitting on the left knee.</p><br>
<p>The Greyfriars, Lincoln was a Franciscan friary in Lincolnshire, England. The surviving building is the remains of the infirmary of the friary, built of dressed stone and brick and dating from c.1230, with mid 19th century additions.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Franciscan Friary</h3><br>
<p>Building of the Friary was started in 1237 on land donated to the Franciscan order and was completed by the 1280s. The community was expelled in 1538 as part of the Dissolution of the Monasteries.</p><br>
<h3>Grammar School and Mechanic's Institute</h3><br>
<p>The building was let to William Monson, whose son Richard opened a school there in 1568. From 1574 the school became the Corporation Grammar School run by Lincoln City Council on the upper floor until 1900.</p><br>
<p>The undercroft was successively used as a House of Correction from 1612, a school for the teaching of spinning and knitting from 1620, a Mechanics’ Institute from 1833 to 1862 and as part of the Grammar School from 1862.</p><br>
<h2>City and County Museum</h2><br>
<p>In 1900 the building was closed and restored under the supervision of Lincoln architect William Watkins, after which it was re-opened as the City and County Museum in 1907. The Museum was administered by the City of Lincoln and the first Curator was Arthur Smith. In 1974 control of the Museum passed to Lincolnshire County Council. In September 1993 the museum&#39;s use of Greyfriars changed with the building becoming a venue for annually changing exhibitions while its main collections underwent a programme of conservation and research in expectation of a new home being built. In 2005, The Collection opened on a new site on Danesgate, adjacent to the Usher Gallery, with the two being jointly managed as a cultural centre for art and archaeology.</p><br>
<p>After closure the building was used for a period by the Central Library, but from 2008 has been left vacant, apart from occasional use for contemporary art exhibitions and installations. In 2016 the city council considered selling the building.</p><br>
<h2>Literature</h2><br>
<p>Antram N (revised), Pevsner N & Harris J, (1989), The Buildings of England: Lincolnshire, Yale University Press. pp 508-9.</p><br>
<p>Little A G (1906), Grey Friars of Lincoln in Victoria County History of the County of Lincoln, Vol II (ed. W. Page) pp.222-4.</p><br>
<p>Leach A.F. (1906), Schools-Lincoln Grammar School in Victoria County History of the County of Lincoln, Vol II (ed. W. Page) 421-443</p><br>
<p>Martin A R (1935), "The Greyfriars of Lincoln", Archaeological Journal Vol 92, pg 42-63.</p><br>
<p>Moore C. N. (1972), City and County Museum, Lincoln. 24pp</p><br>
<p>Stocker D.A. (1984), The remains of the Franciscan friary in Lincoln, York Archaeological Papers, York Archaeological Trust, 135-137.</p><br>
<p>The Tonopah Desert is a small desert plains region of the Sonoran Desert, located west of Phoenix, Arizona. It is adjacent north of Interstate 10 and lies at the southwest intersection of the Hassayampa River with the Gila River. The Tonopah Desert is also just north of the Gila Bend Mountains massif which create the Gila Bend of the river.</p><br>
<p>The Tonopah Desert is adjacent northwest of the small Palo Verde Hills on Centennial Wash.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Tonopah Desert is mostly east-west trending, small, approximately 30 mi long, and lies at the plains of low elevation mountains north; the Belmont Mountains are northeast with the Hummingbird Springs Wilderness in its north-northwest. It borders the low elevation mountain valley with the Big Horn Mountains to the west. The Big Horn Mountains Wilderness comprise most of the Big Horn&#39;s. The desert is bordered east by other mountain foothills on the west border of the Hassayampa River.</p><br>
<p>The Tonopah Desert also lies between two plains: the narrow southeast ridgeline of the Belmont Mountains and the Hassayampa Plain are northeast. The west and southwest of the Tonopah Desert is connected to the southeast section of the large Harquahala Plain, northwest-southeast trending, the same lineage as the Centennial and Bouse Washes which drain the named plains, mountains, and the desert, (about twenty landforms in the region).</p><br>
<p>The closest city to the Tonopah Desert is Tonopah, Arizona located in the center-southwest of the region, elevation 1,122 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Access routes and the region</h2><br>
<p>Interstate 10 passes east-southeasterly through the south border of the Tonopah Desert; Tonopah, AZ is at the west on I-10. South of the Interstate, and only 5 mi due-southwest of Tonopah is Wintersburg, Arizona the site of the Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station.</p><br>
<p>From Interstate 10, unimproved roads go north into the desert, namely 355th Ave (west); the Sun Valley Parkway is just east going to areas of northwest Phoenix-Glendale.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The area includes, and due to overdrawing of the water table, environmental recharge projects are being made to protect the Tonopah Aquifer, and to reverse the effects of water overuse. The project now in place is a Central Arizona Project, the Tonopah Desert Recharge Project in the Lower Hassayampa Basin. The project started construction of 19 basins in 2004; it became operational in 2006.</p><br>
<p>The Buena Vista State Forest is a state forest located in Beltrami County, Minnesota. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources manages18,693 acre of state lands, with the majority of the forest split between private and other public ownership. The eastern half of the forest falls within the Chippewa National Forest, where Federal lands are managed by the United States Forest Service.</p><br>
<p>Boating and fishing are popular on the lakes accessible in the forest, including Lake Beltrami, Big Bass Lake, Gull Lake, Sandy Lake, and Three Island Lake.</p><br>
<p>Outdoor recreation activities include hunting, picnicking, as well as backcountry camping. Trails include 20 mi for cross-country skiing, and 21 mi for snowmobiling. The snowmobiling trail connects with other regional trails to provide access to Nebish, Blackduck, Turtle River, and Bemidji.</p><br>
<p>Mont Brouillard  is a mountain in the Mont Blanc massif in the Val d&#39;Aosta, Italy, being a satellite peak on the south ridge of Mont Blanc.</p><br>
<h2>Toponym</h2><br>
<p>Though in French this name means "mountain of mist", this toponym comes from Valdôtain Francoprovençal patois. According to Aostan botanist and scientist Joseph-Marie Henry, the word Broillà means "made of breuils", Breuil meaning alpine marshy berm, as for Breuil in Valtournenche.</p><br>
<h2>Ascent</h2><br>
<p>The question of who made the first ascent of the peak was for a time a matter of contention. Martino Baretti and his guide Jean-Joseph Maquignaz believed that they had climbed the peak, together with Punta Baretti, on 28 July 1880, but Karl Blodig showed that this was unlikely, no cairn being found when he made his ascent on 10 July 1906 with Oscar Eckenstein and Alexis Brocherel. Later research showed that the time that Baretti gave for the traverse between Punta Baretti and Mont Brouillard was "half that required".</p><br>
<p>The Brouillard ridge to the summit of Mont Blanc does not cross Mont Brouillard, being separated from the peak by the Col Emile Rey.</p><br>
<p>Shofners Lutheran Chapel is a historic church on Thompsons Creek near Shelbyville, Tennessee. The church and adjacent cemetery are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Shofners&#39; Lutheran Church and Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The church was established by Martin Shofner in 1808. A log church was built on a portion of the land grant that Shofner had received for Revolutionary War service. The church is said to be the first Lutheran congregation in Tennessee or anywhere west of the Allegheny Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The current church building is a clapboard Greek Revival-influenced building built around 1870.</p><br>
<p>The church building and cemetery were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1998. The Tennessee Department of Transportation later revised its construction plans for the highway project to avoid adverse impacts. On June 9, 2014, a storm damaged the church roof and knocked down some trees in the churchyard.</p><br>
<p>Friends Church is a historic church at 314 W. Broadway in Maryville, in the USA state of Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>It was built in 1871 as a meetinghouse for the local congregation of the Society of Friends (Quakers). The Quakers were an important group in Maryville in the 19th century that played a major role in building the communitys early schools, including the Freedmans Institute and Maryville Normal School. The single-story brick church is of Italianate design and is laid out on an ell plan.</p><br>
<p>Since 1940 the building has been used for Episcopal worship. It currently houses St. Andrew&#39;s Episcopal Church.</p><br>
<p>It is the oldest brick church in Blount County, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989. It became a Blount County historic landmark in 2007.</p><br>
<p>Broad Street United Methodist Church is a historic Methodist church located at 155 Central Ave NW  in Cleveland, Tennessee, United States.</p><br>
<p>The Broad Street United Methodist congregation traces its history to 1836, when Methodists met for worship in the Bradley County Courthouse in Cleveland. From 1836 until 1893, when the church&#39;s current building was completed, the congregation was based at four different sites in the city.</p><br>
<p>In 1863, during the Civil War, the church&#39;s building at the corner of Church and First Streets was taken over by the Union Army and used as a stable and granary. In 1867-1868, the congregation erected a new brick building at the present church location. In 1893, that building was demolished and the current church building was constructed on the same site. It is designed in the Romanesque Revival style, with an Akron plan sanctuary. Additions were made to the building in 1922 and 1968.</p><br>
<p>The church building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.</p><br>
<p>St. Lukes Episcopal Church is a historic church at Ocoee and Central Streets, NW in Cleveland, Tennessee, United States. It is one of the citys oldest buildings and the second oldest church building in Cleveland.</p><br>
<p>The Gothic Revival-style church building was built in 1873. It was dedicated to the memory of a 7-year-old girl, Nina Craigmiles, who died on October 18, 1871, when the buggy she was riding in was hit by a railroad switch engine.</p><br>
<p>The church building features stained glass windows, wooden arches with intricate carvings, and a 3-story bell tower that contains a bell that is rung nine times after the opening voluntary at the beginning of each service, three peals each in honour of The Father, The Son, and The Holy Ghost. In addition to the bell, an electric carillon that plays the Westminster Chimes on the quarter hours. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<p>First Cumberland Presbyterian Church of McKenzie, Tennessee, is a historic Cumberland Presbyterian church whose former church building, at 647 N. Stonewall Street in McKenzie, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The church is now located at 16835 Highland Drive in McKenzie.</p><br>
<p>The congregation was organized in 1867 as the "Bethlehem Congregation of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church at McKenzie, Tennessee." It moved into its first permanent building in 1873. In 1889 the congregation adopted the name "McKenzie Cumberland Presbyterian Church". The 18,000 ft2 Gothic building on Stonewall Street was built over the five-year period 1887 to 1892 at a cost of $8,000. It stood out in the community for its architecture, including a tall steeple over a high-vaulted slate roof, as well as its art glass windows.</p><br>
<p>The building on Stonewall Street was added to the National Register in 1993. In 1998 the congregation began a building project that culminated in 2002 with its relocation to a new 21,000 ft2 on Highland Drive. Some of the old church&#39;s furnishings were to be moved to the new building, and its stained glass windows were placed in storage in preparation for their installation in the new church, which was expected to be done in 2014.</p><br>
<p>Big Spring Union Church, also known as Big Springs Primitive Baptist Church, is a historic church in Springdale, Claiborne County, Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>The church was built circa 1795 or 1796, and was known at first as Big Spring Meetinghouse. A Baptist church was organized at the site in 1800. During the Civil War, it served as a hospital for both Confederate and Union Army troops.</p><br>
<p>It is one of the oldest church buildings in Tennessee that is still in active use as a church. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. The church is on Lone Mountain Road, off Tennessee State Route 32. The Tennessee State Library and Archives holds a copy of the records of Big Spring Primitive Baptist Church for the years 1800 through 1948.</p><br>
<p>Manchester Cumberland Presbyterian Church is a historic Cumberland Presbyterian congregation in Manchester, Tennessee. Its former church building, also known as the Church Street Theatre, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The church was organized in 1854. Its first church was a two-story wooden frame building that was shared with local Masons, who held the meetings upstairs from the church.</p><br>
<p>The church&#39;s second building, built in 1890, is a brick building of Gothic Revival design located at the corner of Church and W. High Streets in Manchester. In 1961, the church vacated this building when it moved to its present location on the corner of McArthur and Coffee Streets. The 1890 church building was added to the National Register in 1992.</p><br>
<p>Holy Trinity Church  is a historic Episcopal church at 615 6th Avenue South in Nashville, Tennessee, currently a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Tennessee. The congregation was formed in 1849 as a mission of the nearby Christ Church Episcopal, attained parish status in 1851, and grew to around fifty members per service by the beginning of the American Civil War. During the war, the church was occupied by Federal troops and was badly damaged. After repairs, services continued and a new mission was opened on Wharf Avenue, which catered to the African American population of Nashville and soon overtook Holy Trinity in membership. After Holy Trinity lost parish status in 1895, the two missions merged and continued to serve the African American community of Nashville. Its congregation was largely made up of faculty and students from nearby Fisk University and other educational institutions. The mission reattained parish status in 1962, and the current rector is Bill Dennler.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the congregation&#39;s Gothic Revival style building began in 1852 and continued incrementally for more than three decades until the building was finally completed and consecrated in 1888. The building features a square central tower housing the narthex, adjoined to which is a tall bell tower. Pointed arch stained glass windows are featured throughout, and a steeply gabled roof is adorned with matching stone crosses. The interior of the church features a hammerbeam roof and an elaborate carved altar. Holy Trinity was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Establishment</h3><br>
<p>The Church of the Holy Trinity was originally organized on September 23, 1849 as "St. Pauls Mission on Summer Street" (now Fifth Avenue) at the desire of Reverend Charles S. Tomes, then rector of the nearby Christ Church Episcopal, Nashvilles first Episcopal congregation, located on the corner of what is now Sixth Avenue North and Church Street. The mission, which was the first spawned by Christ Church, began with a small cohort of twelve members of Christ Church and averaged around fifty attendees per service throughout its first year. Tomes was assisted by John Philip Thurston Ingraham from Wisconsin for the first year of the missions existence, but Ingraham resigned in 1850 after an outbreak of cholera in the city proved too burdensome for him to handle. After Ingrahams departure, Tomes had to pull double duty many weeks as the rector of both Christ Church and St. Pauls mission, as any temporary priests tenures were short-lived.</p><br>
<p>By 1851, the mission had been organized into a parish under Reverend John W. Rogers, and on December 6 of the same year, the parish purchased a lot on what is now Sixth Avenue South, Lafayette Street, and Ewing Avenue for the construction of a new building to be called the "Church of the Holy Trinity." After a short fundraising drive spearheaded by Tomes, the cornerstone was laid in May 1852. Since Tomes was married to Henrietta Otey, daughter of Bishop James Hervey Otey, the first Episcopal Bishop of Tennessee, the Bishop was invited to give a sermon at the ceremony in May 1852.</p><br>
<p>It was Tomes&#39;s intention to organize the church as a "free church", i.e. one that did not charge pew taxes, a common fund-raising method for churches in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Tomes was vehemently opposed to these charges, claiming they discriminated against poor parishioners, and resented the fact that his home parish of Christ Church required payment for use of church pews. He would later resign as the rector from Christ Church in 1857 because of this disagreement.</p><br>
<h3>Early rectors</h3><br>
<p>The design of the church building was drawn up by Frank Wills and Henry C. Dudley, architects from New York City who had formed a partnership a year before the church was constructed. The building was constructed over an extended period of time and was not consecrated until May 27, 1888, although services began in the unfinished building as early as 1853. Later that year, Reverend Rogers resigned from his post as rector and the burden again fell on Tomes to lead the Church of the Holy Trinity in addition to Christ Church, although with temporary relief by Reverend John McCullough. Tomes was finally relieved in 1855 by Reverend W.D. Harlow, who served for two years (during which Tomes died) before being succeeded by Charles Todd Quintard, later the second bishop of Tennessee. Quintard served as rector from February 1858 until early 1859, and was succeeded by George Carroll Harris, who served as rector until 1862, when he left to become a chaplain in the Army for the remainder of the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>During the first part of the Civil War, services were only held infrequently, and the church was seized by Federal troops in 1862 to serve as a storage facility for gunpowder and weapons as well as troop quarters later on. During the occupation, the church was badly damaged. The altar was used as a cutting board, the font as a wash basin, the original pipe organ destroyed, and many of the stained glass windows shattered. After the occupation, the army was forced to pay damages to the church totalling $1,200.</p><br>
<p>After the war, Jedidiah H. Bowes served as rector for a year, followed by W.T. Helm. Using the reimbursement from the army, the chancel was carpeted and the organ replaced, as were a few of the windows damaged during the war. Moses S. Royce served as rector from 1868 until his death from cholera on June 9, 1873. During Royce&#39;s tenure, a new mission was opened on Wharf Avenue, obtaining parish status in 1872 before soon being reverted to mission status in 1876. This new mission was predominantly attended by African Americans, and members of the mission would later hold services at Holy Trinity around the turn of the century after Holy Trinity lost its parish status in 1895. The mission grew to over 100 members by 1880.</p><br>
<p>After Royces death in 1873, Thomas Lawson served as rector until 1877, when he was succeeded by Jesse Harrison, who served until 1883. Joseph Gray followed, serving only a year before he was succeeded by James Lytton and then Melville Moore, who served until 1886. Under the ministry of Cabell Mayo Martin, the building was finally consecrated in 1888, and in 1889 an adjacent lot was purchased for expansion. Reverend John Scully served for two years after Martins resignation in 1892, followed by the short tenure of S. B. Hillock before Holy Trinity&#39;s parish status was suspended in 1895.</p><br>
<h3>African American congregation</h3><br>
<p>Though throughout its history the congregation of Holy Trinity had been all-inclusive, not discriminating on account of race, it wasnt until after the churchs parish status was lost that the congregation officially became an African American congregation. The mission on Wharf Avenue was officially designated an all-black congregation in 1896, and by 1907 the mission had rejoined Holy Trinity, cementing this designation. Many of the congregation&#39;s members at this time were faculty and students of the recently established Fisk University, Meharry Medical College, and Tennessee State University.</p><br>
<p>Rectors during this transitional period were Bacon Hillock (1895–1896), Arthur Noll (1896–1897), A.W. Cheatham (1897–1900), H.T. Walden (1900–1902), Colin Basset (1902–1903), David Wallace and Robert Morgan (1903–1904), William Allen (1904–1905), and Edward Batty (1905–1906). During Batty&#39;s tenure, the Wharf Avenue property was sold, and the profits were used to renovate Holy Trinity. Reverend Arthur Coombs had served as the priest at Wharf Avenue and so held the same position at Holy Trinity after the merger, holding it for eight years until 1915.</p><br>
<p>Between 1915 and 1928, E.M.M. Wright, C.W. Brooks, and W.A. Bruce served as rectors of Holy Trinity, followed by Reverend A. Myron Cochran, whose tenure began in 1928. During his tenure, which lasted until 1943, many students attended the church. In his notes Cochran counted 44 students from Fisk University, 15 from A and I State College, and 15 from Meharry Medical. The next rector of Holy Trinity was Charles M. Johnson, who served until 1956, followed by George E. Harper and James E. Williams until 1962. In 1962, parish status was restored to Holy Trinity.</p><br>
<h3>A parish again</h3><br>
<p>Cecil H. Cowan served as rector after Holy Trinity&#39;s restoration to parish status in 1962 until 1970, followed by Crayton</p><br>
<p>Thomas Dudley in 1974. In the 1980s, the church began to desegregate and now about 25% of its members are white. The current rector is Bill Dennler.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The congregations building is constructed in the Gothic Revival style and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 primarily for its architectural significance. The plans were originally drawn up in 1851 by the duo of Frank Wills and Henry C. Dudley, architects from New York City well known for designing churches of this style throughout North America. The building is constructed of native limestone ashlar and features a central square tower adorned with battlements and two sets of pointed arch stained glass windows, one on each level. An electric cross donated by member Alfred Galloway some time during Rev. Cochrans rectorship (1928–1943) is hung just above the lower set of windows. A pair of double red doors are located in the center of the tower, hung in 1952 as part of the church&#39;s centennial celebration. The central tower was not completed immediately after the laying of the cornerstone in 1852 but rather over the course of several years, only reaching the same height as the roof of the nave during the rectorship of George Carroll Harris (1859–1862).</p><br>
<p>The narthex of the church is located at the base of the tower, and there is a large bell tower chamfered into the southwest corner of the tower. The belfry atop the bell tower was originally topped with battlements similar to those atop the square tower, but those were removed some time after 1941. The original plans called for a polygonal spire to top the bell tower, but it was never built. The nave of the church is approximately 70 ft by 35 ft, and its exterior is segmented lengthwise by several buttresses, between each lancet windows are located. The roof of the nave is steeply gabled and constructed of varnished cedar wood covered originally with seamed tin but later with more contemporary roofing material.</p><br>
<p>A square chancel measuring about 22 ft on all sides and with a height shorter than that of the main nave is adjoined to the rear of the nave and topped with the same roofing material. The apexes of both roofs feature matching stone crosses. The rear wall of the chancel features a triplet of pointed arch stained glass windows, and the exterior is flanked with two corner buttresses. A small addition to the eastern side of the chancel was originally used as a Sunday School room and is built in a similar fashion as the chancel itself. The chancel was one of the first parts of the building to be completed, being ready for service in early 1853, several months before the nave was completed later that year. Carpeting was added to the chancel in 1866 and electric lighting in the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>The interior of the church follows its outer design. The narthex is floored with large stone slabs and is flanked with two lancet widows. The interior of the nave is highlighted by the exposed wood in the hammerbeam roof. The central stained glass window in the chancel features a depiction of Jesus Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane while the smaller flanking windows depict lilies and roses. The set is dedicated to rector Cabell Mayo Martin, during whose rectorship (1887–1892) the building was finally consecrated. The altar is constructed out of the same varnished wood present in the roof beams and features a carving of the letters "IHS" (a Christogram for the Greek Ἰησοῦς, meaning "Jesus") surrounded by a crown of thorns and topped with the Greek A and Ω, in reference to the Alpha and Omega. The altar was brought to Holy Trinity after being discarded from another church in New York City around 1935.</p><br>
<p>Old Hickory United Methodist Church is a United Methodist congregation which meets at 1216 Hadley Avenue in Old Hickory, Tennessee. The church building was constructed in 1928 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Old Hickory United Methodist Church was organized in 1925. Originally, it met in the "little gym," which is now the site of the Old Hickory Community Center. The construction of the current sanctuary began with services held in the basement. The sanctuary was completed in 1929 at a cost of $30,000, and the first service was held on the first Sunday in 1929. Pews were installed in 1936 to replace folding chairs. An educational annex was added in 1939 at a cost of $10,000, and second floor was added in 1954. In 1967 the sanctuary was remodeled and redecorated. Stained-glass windows were installed in 1983. The church was added to the National Register of Historic Places in May 1985.</p><br>
<p>New cushioned pews were added in 1990. Marvin Rodgers memorials placed new pew Bibles, lectern, wedding candle, Advent wreath, Paschal candlestick, communion ware, and candelabra in the sanctuary. In 1982, the Prayer Room was built.</p><br>
<p>St. Mary of the Seven Sorrows Church  is a historic Catholic parish in downtown Nashville, Tennessee, United States. Its church at 330 5th Avenue, N. in Nashville, Tennessee, built in 1845, it is the oldest extant church in Nashville and the oldest Catholic church in what is now the Diocese of Nashville. St. Mary replaced the dioceses first church, Holy Rosary, which had been erected previously on the site today occupied by the Tennessee State Capitol.</p><br>
<p>The church was designed by Adolphus Heiman (1809–1862), who also designed a number of other notable Nashville buildings, including the State Asylum and the Italianate-style Belmont Mansion. The late antebellum Greek Revival structure features a gabled front entrance of two fluted Ionic order columns supporting a classical pediment. The cornerstone was laid in 1844, not long after the erection of the diocese in 1837; construction was delayed, however, by lack of funds. It was dedicated on October 31, 1847. Richard Pius Miles, the first Bishop of Nashville, was the driving force behind its construction, and he is now buried there.</p><br>
<p>St. Mary&#39;s remained the cathedral until 1914, when the episcopal see was moved to the Cathedral of the Incarnation.</p><br>
<p>The church was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.</p><br>
<p>Calvary Episcopal Church, formerly St. James Episcopal Church is a historic Episcopal church located off Tennessee State Route 48 in Cumberland Furnace, Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>St. James Episcopal Church was founded in 1878. Its small white frame church building was completed the following year. The church was consecrated by Bishop Charles Quintard in August 1882.</p><br>
<p>The builders of the church were Captain James Pierre Drouillard and his wife, born Mary Florence Kirkman. Mary Florence Kirkman Drouillard was the granddaughter of Anthony Wayne Van Leer, who had built up the iron works at Cumberland Furnace. She was heiress to the iron works in Cumberland Furnace as well as 20,000 acre of land in the vicinity. Drouillard was a West Point graduate who served as an officer in the Union Army during the Civil War; Mary Florence Kirkman shocked Nashville society when she married him there in 1864 (while the state of Tennessee was still at war with the Union). For several years, the Drouillards made their home in Cumberland Furnace and oversaw the operation of the iron works. In 1870 they built their three-story Italianate mansion home, now known as Drouillard House, on a site that overlooks the community. They also constructed a school for both black and white children on the land where the church&#39;s parish hall now stands. In 1882, the Drouillards transferred the church to the Protestant Episcopal Church of Tennessee for $5. The Drouillards left Cumberland Furnace in 1886 and took up residence in Nashville. The church building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.</p><br>
<p>During the 1980s, St. James established a "daughter" church in Dickson. During the 1990s, the church in Dickson was redesignated as St. James Episcopal Church and the church in Cumberland Furnace became a mission church, renamed Calvary Church.</p><br>
<p>Trinity Episcopal Church is a parish church of the Episcopal Church of the United States located at 213 1st Ave., NW in Winchester, Tennessee, USA, and affiliated with the Episcopal Diocese of Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>The church began in 1859 as a mission. Reverend Thomas A. Morris conducted the first Episcopal service in the county courthouse, with just one communicant. By June of that year, there 12 communicants, all of them women, as well as 52 Sunday school attendees. Male members were needed in order to form a parish. Several men joined later in 1859, and the parish was organized in 1860, with 26 members.</p><br>
<p>Some time after the parish was organized, the congregation acquired its first permanent building, buying the former First Cumberland Presbyterian Church. In 1863, the Union Army occupied Winchester and used the church building as a military hospital. Either during the Union occupation or later in the Civil War, the building was destroyed in a fire, and the congregation resumed its practice of conducting worship in the courthouse, as well as in the Carrick Academy building. In 1872, after several years of fundraising efforts, the foundation was laid for the current church building. The building was completed in 1874.</p><br>
<p>Through its history, Trinity has experienced fluctuations in membership, and has at times fallen below the size threshold necessary to be a recognized parish. In 2008, Trinitys priest and a number of members of the congregation left the Episcopal Church to form Christ the King Anglican Church, affiliated with the Convocation of Anglicans in North America under the ecclesiastical authority of the Church of Nigeria. The group was one of several that left the Episcopal Church after the Diocese of Tennessees convention in 2006 because of objections to the actions of Episcopal leadership, particularly including the denomination&#39;s consecration of Gene Robinson, a gay man, as a bishop. Trinity church retained its traditional affiliation. It is now joined with three other Episcopal churches in a regional ministry, the Southeast Tennessee Episcopal Ministry (STEM), that are served by a single priest and that share other resources.</p><br>
<p>The church building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>New Bethel Cumberland Presbyterian Church is a historic church building near Greeneville in rural Greene County, Tennessee, United States.</p><br>
<p>The New Bethel congregation formed in 1839 after 38 citizens of Greene County successfully petitioned the Knoxville Presbytery of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church for the organization of a new congregation. The church building was constructed in 1841 on a 4 acre tract donated by John Harmon. Funds for its construction were donated by James Carter, a local resident who had aspired to join the ministry, but died before he could realize his dream.</p><br>
<p>The building is of wood frame construction with rural Vernacular Greek Revival styling that stresses simplicity. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.</p><br>
<p>Bethesda Presbyterian Church is a historic church in Russellville, Tennessee, US, that was used as a hospital during the American Civil War. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Bethesda Presbyterian Church organized in 1832. The church building was completed in 1835. It is a brick building equipped with high-back wooden pews and an "ornate" wooden pulpit.</p><br>
<p>As the Civil War approached, the congregants&#39; sympathies were divided between the Union and secessionist sides. The split led the church to suspend activity until after the hostilities ended.</p><br>
<p>Some 25,000 Confederate Army soldiers under the command of General James Longstreet arrived at the church in December 1863 to spend the winter, after the Battle of Beans Station. They remained there until February 1864 and used the church building as a hospital. In "Gillems Stampede" in November, Confederate forces prevailed over Gillem&#39;s troops, chasing the Union forces westward to a defensive position near Knoxville. Many soldiers from both sides are interred in the church cemetery. Eighty of the wartime burials are unidentified.</p><br>
<p>Worship services resumed after the war ended, but church members could not reconcile their political differences. Confederate and Union supporters sat on different sides of the church, separated by empty pews. In 1871, one group walked out together; they then joined the Presbyterian Church of Morristown. The other group continued to worship at Bethesda Presbyterian Church until 1875, when they closed Bethesda and left to become part of the new Russellville Presbyterian Church.</p><br>
<h2>Modern status</h2><br>
<p>The church was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. The church building and its cemetery are maintained by members of a local chapter of the Sons of Confederate Veterans. In 2011, a pair of local teenagers vandalized the church and its cemetery, breaking windows and defacing gravestones. It currently has a Civil War Trails sign that signifies its usage in the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The Masonic Female College and Cokesbury Conference School is a historic building in Cokesbury, South Carolina, that was the home of several different educational institutions in the century from 1854 to 1954. Together with the adjacent village of Old Cokesbury, it is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places as an historic district.</p><br>
<p>When built in 1854, the school building was the home of the Masonic Female College of South Carolina, which was established in 1853 and operated until 1874 under the sponsorship of Bascomb Lodge No. 80 of Freemasons. The school was unusual for its time in providing an education for young women.</p><br>
<p>From 1876 to 1918, the building was the site of the Cokesbury Conference School, a school for boys from 1876 to 1882, and co-educational thereafter. In 1918, it became a public school, and operated as such until 1954. In 1954 the property reverted to the South Carolina Annual Conference of the United Methodist Church. The three-story Greek Revival style building has a bell tower and four square columns that extend from the ground level to the pediment. The first floor contained four student recitation rooms and four music rooms, there was a chapel on the second floor, and the third floor housed a Masonic Lodge headquarters. The school building and Old Cokesbury were listed together on the National Register on August 25, 1970.</p><br>
<p>Asbury United Methodist Church, originally Highland Park Methodist Episcopal Church, is a historic church on Bailey Avenue in Chattanooga, Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>The congregation was organized in 1889 as the Highland Park Methodist Episcopal Church. The congregation soon moved into a new frame church that it used for about 20 years before completing the current building. The current church building is a brick structure in a Gothic design created by architect Reuben Harrison Hunt. It was completed in 1909, dedicated in 1911, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>Highland Park Methodist Episcopal Church changed its name to Asbury Methodist Church in 1938, when the Methodist Episcopal Church and Methodist Episcopal Church, South, merged. It later added "United" to its name when the United Methodist Church was formed. Another local congregation with a similar name, Highland Park Methodist Episcopal Church, South, became St. Andrew’s Methodist Church and later St. Andrew’s United Methodist Church. Asbury United Methodist Church closed on July 1, 1984. Its congregation merged with Brainerd United Methodist Church and the church property was sold to Highland Park Baptist Church, which renamed the former Asbury Methodist building as the "Asbury Chapel". St. Andrew&#39;s closed in 2004. When Highland Park Baptist Church relocated to Harrison, Tennessee, in 2013, it sold Asbury Chapel and six other buildings in the Highland Park neighborhood to Redemption Point Church, a Church of God congregation based in Ooltewah.</p><br>
<p>Wiley Memorial United Methodist Church, now known as Bethlehem Wiley United Methodist Church, is a historic church at 504 Lookout Street in Chattanooga, Tennessee, affiliated with the Holston Conference of the United Methodist Church.</p><br>
<p>The churchs site was an important community center in the early years of Rosss Landing, before it came to be called Chattanooga. During the American Civil War, an earlier church building on the site was used as a military hospital and prison by the Confederate Army and later as a Union Army military prison. The building incurred major damage during the 1863 Battle of Chattanooga. In 1867 it was purchased for use by the first African Methodist Episcopal congregation in East Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>The churchs current brick building, completed in 1886–7, replaced a building that was destroyed by arson. It was rebuilt though the cooperative efforts of the congregations members.</p><br>
<p>The city declared the building unsafe for occupancy in 1978. Money was raised to restore the historic building. Following restoration, which included installation of a new roof, sandblasting the exterior, and uncovering some of the interior woodwork, the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places. After the 1979 National Register listing, city officials allowed the congregation to resume its use of the church for worship.</p><br>
